
I 



Qass 
Book 



THE 

LAND OF THE CZAR 



THE 



LAND OF THE CZAR. 



BY 

O. W. WAHL, 



*IepTejEB 3ejun Mockobckoh, Hauie lrapcTEo 
H3i Kpaa BB Kpaii 

1IAPB. (EopncB rojyHOBi). 

KaKB CB OO.iaKOB'B TH MOaieDIB 0603p , BTB 

Bee iiapcTBO B^pyn : rpaHniibi, rpaABi pbkh. 

A. C. LTymKnirr,. 

Feodor ; 

The picture of the Moscovitish country, 
Our own Empire from East to West. . 

The Czar {Boris Godounov) : 

So canst thou overlook, as from the clouds, 
The whole Land of the Czar at once, 
Boundaries, cities, rivers. .... 




LONDON: 

CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 
1875. 

[TJie right of translation is reserved,.'] 



PREFACE. 

Amongst the many works that have been written 
on the Empire of Russia, there are but few of which 
it may be said with truth, that they fully met the 
requirements of a public desirous of obtaining, at a 
comparatively small sacrifice of time and money, a 
correct general insight into the conditions of that 
colossal country. 

In consequence of recent events the attention of 
the British public has been incessantly kept alive with 
regard to Russia and its probable political future. 
The Khivan Expedition, in particular, has given rise 
to a sort of vague, uneasy feeling, in most cases 
exaggerated for want of correct information on the 
subject. 

Few schools, if any, profess to teach the history 
of the Russian nation, of its religious and literary life ; 
and the opportunities for proper self-information on 
these matters, and particularly on the character of 



Vlll 



PREFACE. 



that people and the development of their intellectiu 
and political condition are for divers reasons very 
scarce or of difficult access. 

There are some excellent books that might fulfil 
that object most thoroughly, but, unfortunately, they 
are very expensive or voluminous, and therefore 
almost entirely confined to the libraries of the great 
and wealthy. 

The Author, who 1ms for many years resided and 
travelled in Eussia, for these reasons inclines to the 
belief that a work like the present, condensing within 
a necessarily narrow compass the greatest possible 
amount of general information, and compiled in as 
popular a manner as compatible with the weighty 
nature of the subject, will meet the wishes of that 
numerous class, who, anxious to acquire a fair and 
clear judgment on the affairs of the great eastern 
giant, may thus, it is hoped, be brought to look upon 
the latter in a kindly and equitable spirit, and not, 
as hitherto, in the light of the grim European 
bugbear. 

Personal experience, and more or less intimate 
acquaintance with members of ail the classes of the 
Eussian people, supported by some of the highest 
authorities who have written on the subject in all its 



PREFACE. 



ix 



specialities, form tlie basis of this book. Its contents 
comprise the following subjects : — 

1. General statistics of the Russian Empire, viz., 
Geographical, Geolo;-3cal, A err cultural, Industrial, &c. 

2. The populations of Russia, their character, 
domestic and spiritual life, &c. 

3. A glimpse at the history of the Russian Empire 
from Rurik to Alexander II., Nikolayevitch, preceded 
by some introductory remarks on recent political 
events, the Khivan Expedition, &c. 

4. The Church of Russia. 

5. The history of the Russian language. 

6. The Caucasian languages. 

7. The history of the Russian literature. 



London, 1st Oct., 1874. 



CONTENTS. 

- — 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE — ITS 
GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, CLIMATE TRAVEL- 
LING IN THE STEPPE— ^MOUNTAINS GENERAL GEO- 
LOGICAL CONDITION — MIXES ..... 1 15 

* 

CHAPTER II. 

RIVERS AND LAKES — CLIMATE THE ANIMAL KINGDOM OF 

RUSSIA — HUNTING IN THE CAUCASUS — BOVINES 

SHEEP HORSES BEARS — WOLVES .... 16 31 

CHAPTER III. 

THE RUSSIANS OF GREAT RUSSIA 32 — 58 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE RUSSIANS OF THE MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS AND 

THE WORKMEN . . . . . ... .59 — 62 

CHAPTER V. 

THE RUSSIANS OF SIBERIA 63 — 67 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER VI. page 

THE RUSSIANS OF LITTLE RUSSIA — RUTHENES WHIT 

RUSSIANS 68 — 74 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE COSSACKS 75 — 82 

CHAPTER VIII. 

SERBIANS BULGARIANS — POLES LITHUANIANS — LETTS — 

WALLACHIANS . 83 90 

CHAPTER IX. 

OSSETS — PERSIANS — KOURDHS — RUSSIAN GIPSIES — JEWS — 

KARAIMES 91 101 

CHAPTER X. 

ARMENIANS .. . . . . . . . 102 106 

CHAPTER XL 

THE GERMANS SWEDES GREEKS — HINDOOS . . 107 112 

CHAPTER XII. 

THE POPULATION OF THE CAUCASUS— THE KHARTLE 

RACE GROUZINIANS — IMERETHIANS — MINGRELIANS 

GOURIANS SSUANES PSHAVS, TOUSHES, KHEVSOURS 113 — 123 

CHAPTER XIII. 

THE LESGHIS — MURIDISM SHAMYL .... 124 131 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE KISTES OR TCIIETCHENTS 132 134 



CONTENTS. 



Xlll 



CHAPTER XV. 



PAGE 



THE TCHERKESS OR ADIGHE THE ABKHAZ 



13.5—137 



CHAPTER XVI. 



CONCLUDING REMARKS OX THE CAUCASUS MOHAMME- 
DAN EMIGRATION — ENGLISH MISSIONS — MORAVIAN 
BRETHREN 138—149 



THE FINNISH NATIONS — LIVONIANS, ESTHONIANS, VOTES, 
INGRIANS, ;EYR03M(EISETS, SAVAKOTES, LAPS, PER- 
MIAKS, ZYRIANS, VOTIAKS, BESSERMENES, OUGRIANS, 
VOGHULS, OSTJAKS, TCHEREMISS, MORDVINS . . 156 — 168 



THE TARTAR RACE IN RUSSIA TCHOUVASHES BASHKIRS, 

MESHTCHERIAKS, TEPTIARS, TARTARS PROPER, NOGAIS, . 
CRIMEAN TARTARS — OF ASTRAKHAN, KARAPALKAS, OF 
KAZAN, SIBERIAN TARTARS, TCHOUDS, TELEUTES, 
CAUCASIAN TARTARS, KOUMYKS, TURKOMANS, KIRGHIZ- 
KAISSAKS, KIRGHIX, YAKOUTES .... 169 — 204 



CHAPTER XVII. 



SAMOYEDES YOURAKS OSTJAKS . 



150—155 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



CHAPTER XX. 



THE MONGOL RACE BOURIATS KALMUKS 



205—213 



CHAPTER XXI. 

TOUNGOUSE PEOPLES — YOUKAGHIRS — TCHOUKTCHIS — KAM- 

TCHADALES — GHILLAKS — KOURILES OR AINOS . , 214 — 226 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

ETHNOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE POPULATION OF 
RUSSIAN EMPIRE 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

A GLIMPSE AT THE HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE SAME BY RURIK TO 
THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER II. NIKOLA YEYITCH— 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 230 236 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

FIRST PERIOD. THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF RUSSIA . 237 — 246 



PAGE 

THE 

227 229 



CHAPTER XXV. 

SECOND PERIOD. FOUNDATION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE 
BY THE VARAEGS (NORMANS), RURIK, OLEG, IGOR, 
SVJATOSLAV, JAROPOLK I., VLADIMIR I. . . . 247 252 

CHAPTER XXVI. • 

third period. svjatopolk — jaroslav isaslav 

vsevolod svjatopolk (michael) mstislav 

iaropolk ii. — vsevolod olgovitch — igor olgo- 

vitch — isaslav mst1slavitch george dolgoruki 

— isaslav iii. rostislav 1. — mstislav isasla- 

vitch, andrej i. — jaropolk iii. and mstislav iii., 

michael ii. — vsevolod iii. george vsevolodo- 

vitch . . 253—265 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

FOURTH PERIOD. THE MONGOL REIGN, JAROSLAV II. 

AND III. DMITRI I. ALEXANDER II. MIKLAILOVITCH 

IVAN I., SIMON THE PROUD IVAN II. — DMITRI IV. 

DONSKOI VASSILY II. VASSILY III. . . . 266 273 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



CHAPTER XXVIII. page 

IVAN III. VASSILY IV. IVAN IV. FEODOR I. BORIS 

GODOUNOV THE DMITRI PRETENDERS . . . 274 — 282 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

SIXTH PERIOD. MICHAEL I. ROMANOV ALEX E J I. 

FEODOR III. PETER THE GREAT .... 283 — 291 

CHAPTER XXX. 

SEVENTH PERIOD. CATHARINA I. PETER II. ANNA 

ELIZABETH PETER III. CATHARINA II. — PAUL I. 

ALEXANDER I. PAVLOVITCH NICHOLAS I. ALEX- 
ANDER II. NIKOLAYEVITCH ..... 292 317 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE CZAR 

IVAN IV. THE TERRIBLE AND THE JESUIT POSSEVIN 318 — 332 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

THE LANGUAGES OF RUSSIA — SLAVONIC LANGUAGE THE 

LANGUAGES OF LESGHISTAN MITZDSHEGI, OSSETIAN, 

TCHERKESS, ABASS AND SSUANI LANGUAGES — TARTAR 

— SANSKRIT ROOTS 333 — 354 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE LITERATURE OF RUSSIA ..... 355 383 



ERRATA. 



Page 24, line 20, for gallop before the telya, read telyega. 

„ 29, — 16, for strong foal, read stray foal. 

„ 29, — 33, for Rabtchik (fr. j ellinotte), read, gelinotte. 

„ 30, — 21, for wolfs, read wolves. 

; , 353, — 2,/ornicht — rien— nitchto, read "nought" 
stead of "rien." 



THE 

LAND OF THE CZAE 



CHAPTEE I. 

STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE — ITS GEOGRAPHY — 
GEOLOGY — AGRICULTURE — ZOOLOGY — CLIMATE. 

The immense continent of Russia extends over 212° long, 
by 40° lat., and comprises nearly half a million of geogra- 
phical square miles—more than double the size of Europe, 
one-sixth of the whole earth. 

Its northern neighbours are the Polar and White Seas, 
and Norway ; its western, Sweden, the Baltic Sea, Germany, 
Austria, and Moldavia. In the south we have Turkey, 
Persia, the Black and Caspian Seas. 

This line of frontier, continuing on the Asiatic side, touches 
successively on the Steppe of the Kirghiz-Kaissaks, on Turk- 
istan or Independent Tartary, and on the Chinese Empire, 
the northern boundaries of which it finally pursues down to 
the shores of the Pacific Ocean. 

A considerable part of this continental mass is covered by 
an almost eternal snow, or forms arid syrtes. But by far 
the largest portion consists in the so-called " Steppes," or 
prairie land, extending over the greater part of the empire 
in Europe. 

Majestic representatives of the grandest and most pic- 
turesque Alpine formation, the Ural with its treasures, the 
Altai system (one of the ancient cradles of mankind), the 



2 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Caucasus (the grand junction station of languages), the 
Sacred Ararat and others are raising their lofty heads into 
the clouds, forming, as it were, an appropriate frame to 
the immeasurable fertile plains of which we have spoken 
above. 

The Steppe is, as we have said, the vast undulating plains 
occupying the greater part of Russia proper. 

Although generally described as a dreary waste by most 
travellers, who, for the purpose of business, or under the 
impulse of scientific research or of general curiosity, have 
crossed it, it is (with all deference to the opinion of others) 
certainly not without its beauty and evidences of Nature's 
sublime grandeur. Whether in the luxuriant, flower- 
studded garment of spring, or in the pure, dazzling crystal 
robe of winter, it cannot fail to afford peculiar enjoyment to 
the thinking man, who has abandoned himself for the nonce 
to the hospitality of these vast solitudes. 

Nerve-stirring and exhilarating is the continuous battle 
with the elements, even of winter ; and pleasant the timely 
interruption occasioned by the arrival at some solitary post- 
house, plain, low-roofed, and snow-buried, but with a cosy 
corner by the huge stove, and the ever ready " samovar," or 
tea-urn. 

If densely-populated countries and cities are apt to pro- 
duce a certain exclusiveness in the social intercourse of the 
inhabitants, in the immense solitudes of Russia all reserve 
vanishes before the breath of that love of our species which 
is innate in all mankind. A few days' disuse of habitual 
society has broken down the icy barrier of selfish seclusion, 
and a genial warmth qualifies the response to the respectful 
and generally hospitable welcome of the postal official and 
his family. 

The writer of this book recollects being highly amused 
one Saturday afternoon, when, waiting for horses at Alexan- 
drovsk, a solitary Cossack station, not far from Giorgjevsk 
in Cis- Caucasia, he became witness to the following serio- 
comic domestic scene. The actors were the brisk and good- 



GEOGRAPHY. 



3 



looking wife of the official and her sturdy little son, Petrush, 
who, a stout little five-year- old, seemed inclined for another 
romp with Ivan (evidently his particular chum), while the 
careful mother was anxious to give him his bath and put 
him to bed. With admirable patience, the good woman 
strove for some time to make the imp listen to reason ; but 
at last, when kind persuasive words, kisses, and promises 
of cakes for the Sunday breakfast proved unavailing, she 
seemed suddenly to remember the scriptural recommendation 
of the rod ; some sharp whisks, followed by a dreadful roar, 
struck the listener's ear ; then all became silent, excepting 
perhaps the contented splashing of the little Cossack in the 
water. " Here I am," thought the unseen witness of the 
scene, " 2000 miles from home, amongst a strange people — 
half warriors, half farmers — yet, barring the difference in 
language, very similar scenes may be enacting at this 
moment in many a familiar household." 

While listening to poor little Petrush's troubles, I have 
finished my tea; the driver's " Lozhadjei gatovi" (horses 
ready) ! has called me to the sledge, where the trusty steeds, 
with frosty whiskers and eyelashes and a certain mischievous 
curiosity, give me a look that almost speaks, seeming to 
say, " Who is that creature that tears us away from our 
thistles on such a night?" A last " ssovssem" (all right) ! 
and off we are again, flying along the endless track at the 
rate of fifteen miles an hour. 

The moon (oh, how kind a friend to travellers in Russia !) 
has risen in the meantime. Drowsily she looks through the 
misty night air on the sparkling plain spread out before the 
nocturnal wanderer, like one immeasurable sea of glittering 
silver. The sound of hoofs is lost in the snow, and silence 
reigns throughout. Behold ! one solitary fox in the moonlit 
distance ! With ears erect, prowling after a poor sleeping 
partridge, he is the only visible representative of animated 
nature. 

One of the principal conditions to the enjoyment of such 
scenes is, of course, a sound constitution and temperate 

B 2 



4 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



living. In the author's opinion it is the greatest mistake, 
and one into which many travellers fall, to drink spirits and 
wine, and to live on ham, pasties, and other indigestible food, 
while travelling. The shaking of the teljega on a rough 
road not only, but the fatigue of constant travelling itself, 
tends to weaken the digestive organs for the time. The 
food ought, therefore, to be of the lightest description, such 
as bread and butter, and fowl, accompanied by tea, which in 
Russia is so delicious. In most cases, where travellers 
break down, it has been caused by too rich a diet. In the 
hot weather the traveller in wild countries ought to provide 
himself with a large tin can, which, filled every morning 
with good tea, will keep him in good spirits during the day, 
and assuage his thirst better than water, or any other drink. 

Travelling for weeks together under the burning sun of 
Trans-Caucasia, in miasmatic, swampy districts, the author 
has never once been attacked by fever, although nearly every 
one of the natives accompanying the expedition was down 
with it ; and he attributes this fact solely to his strict atten- 
tion to a diet such as described above. Affected by the 
luxury of town life, his long and trying travels have inva- 
riably had the best after- effects on his health. 

The heat and dust of the Steppe during the long summer 
days are certainly a severe trial to health and temper ; but 
then, how delightful the balmy coolness of the moonlit 
night ! How heart-expanding the glory of the rising and 
setting sun ! 

Somewhat similar in grandeur to the storms of the sea 
are those of the Steppe. Let the wanderer hasten to reach 
the sheltering roof of the stanzia (station). Once there he 
is safe ; the clouds disperse, and onward lies the course. 

As long as weather and roads permit of uninterrupted 
locomotion, all is serene ; but woe to the unhappy wayfarer 
that is compelled to take the road in wet weather, when the 
rain has turned the black mould covering the greater part 
of Russia proper into one enormous bootjack ! 

Where before two horses had easily sped along with the 



GEOGRAPHY. 



5 



light teljega, eight perhaps are now required to attain a 
snail's pace. The wheels from behind, and the horses' feet 
in front, plaster one with mud, which, before entering the 
post-house, has to be scraped off with a piece of deal board. 
From 240 versts the day's work sinks to thirty, and that 
after a day of unspeakable toil and discomfort. But this is 
the very worst feature of Steppe travelling, and one, the 
author is happy to say, it rarely unveiled to him. 

In dismissing this subject, it may be safely asserted, that 
to an unprejudiced and good-tempered observer, the 
Russian Steppe is not without considerable interest and 
charms. 

But now the scene changes ! 

Gigantic Alpine ranges debar our gaze from mighty 
Asia. The " Mirages," that daily mocked us in the Steppe, 
become all at once real — nay, are far surpassed by reality. 
All the choicest beauties and treasures nature possesses, 
seem to have been piled up, and spread over this region by 
the mighty hand of the all bountiful Creator. 

Looking towards the south, we descry, towering above the 
Black Sea, a magnificent terrace of limestone, the Tauride 
Mountains, the Tchadyr Dag (or Hill of the Tent), 5000 feet 
in height, until, having crossed the Sea of Azov, one's awe- 
struck gaze is arrested by the wondrous Caucasus. Stretching 
its colossal limbs from the Black to the Caspian Sea, it 
throws forth a mighty arm in a southern direction, until 
precisely on the meeting point of the Russian, Turkish, and 
Persian frontiers, it takes in its clasp the last buttresses 
of Mount Taurus. 

Here stands the majestic Ararat, a sacred name to the 
Armenians, and to all readers of the Book of Genesis one of 
pious interest. Upwards of thirty centuries have rolled past 
in the space of time since that Book was written. Where 
is its great writer and legislator now? Where the great 
God-beloved nation, for whom he recorded and legislated ? 
Dissolved — dispersed — ages ago ! But Ararat still stands ! 
Though storms and earthquakes of centuries have shaken 



6 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



many a scale from off his shield, yet does he rear his hoary 
head into the clouds, as firmly as in the time of Noah. 

No other Alpine range surpasses, or even equals, the 
Caucasus in grandeur of scenery, in historical, geological, 
and other scientific interest. 

Greeks and Romans, who in ancient times carried their 
wars even into these wild regions, had to undergo great 
hardships and dangers, yet never succeeded in securing a 
firm and permanent footing in that country. The wild, 
fabulous accounts they brought home with them, struck awe 
into the hearts of all hearers. 

Horace in his 22nd Ode sings of those regions of dread : 

" Sive per Syrtes iter sestuosas, 
Sive facturus per inhospitalem 
Caucasum, vel quse loca fabulosus 
Lambit Hyclaspes. " 

Respecting the name and signification of " Caucasus " 
there is a wide difference of opinion. The most ancient 
explanation of it we find in Pliny, who derives this word 
from the Scythian " Graucasus," which is said to signify 
" nive candidus." As, however, this etymology is not 
confirmed by any known language, and it is extremely 
improbable that the whole family of words to which it 
belongs should have been lost, it seems to carry little 
weight, and to be equally unfounded with many others set 
up by the ancients. 

" Kaukas," which is a foreign term in these mountains, 
may perhaps come from the Persian appellation " Koh-Ckaf," 
signifying the Mountains of Ckaf.* The more ancient form 
of this word was probably " Ckafssp or Ckassp," with the 
termination "Assp," which was common in the Median 
dialects. 

From this ancient form the Caspian Sea and the nation of 

* In Pehlwi, the ancient language of Media and Parthia, a mountain was 
called "kof," consequently the Caucasus was styled " Kof Ckaf, or Kof Ckasp." 
— See Klaproth. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



7 



the Caspians probably received their name, for according to 
the testimony of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), the people in- 
habiting the Caucasus called it the Caspian Mountains — 
Kdo-TTiov bpos. In Moses of Chorene it is named Kowkass 
and Kaukass ; and in the History of Georgia, compiled by 
the direction of King Wakhtang the 5th (W akhtang Mekh- 
uthi Levanssa tse, Wakhtang V. son of Levan (1703 — 1722 
in Kharthli) ), from the archives of the convents of Mzchetha 
and Gelathi, the most ancient boundaries of this country are 
thus described : — " On the east it has the Gurganian Sea 
(Gurganissa), now called the Sea of Gilan ; on the west the 
Pontic, otherwise the Black Sea ; on the south the Orethian 
Mountains, situated in the country of the Kurds (Khurthia) 
towards Media, and on the north the Kawkasian Mountains 
(Khawk'assia), which are called by the Persians " Yalbus." 
In the epitome of the history of the country, written by 
the Georgian prince Davith, and printed at Tiflis in 1798, 
the Caucasus is likewise styled from ancient authorities 
K'awk'ass. " The country belonging to him (to Thargamoss) 
was bounded on the east by the Gurganian Sea (Caspian) ; 
on the west by the Black Sea (Pontus) ; on the south by 
the Aressian Mountains (those of Khurdistan) ; and on the 
north by the K'awk'asian.* 

All this sufficiently proves the antiquity of the name of 
Caucasus among the neighbouring nations ; nevertheless at 
present it is but little used by the Asiatics, who commonly 
call this mountain by the Tartar name of " Yalbus," i.e., 
" Ice-mane." In Tartar the appellation is properly " Yalbus 
thaglar," but among the Nogai it is likewise pronounced 
" Yildis thaghlar " (Mountains of the Stars). The Turks call 
it "Ckaf tkagi" (Mountains of Ckaf). The Georgians 
usually employ the Tartar term, and say " Yalbusiss Mtha," 
Mount Yalbus. The Armenians call it " Yalbusi-ssar " as 
well as Kawkas. 

High above the snow line the Kazbek or Mginvari lifts up 

* Shemok'lebuli Istoria ssa Kharthuloissa. — Brief History of Georgia, 
sec. 4, p. 84. 



8 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



his crown. Its pass leads through the ancient Caucasian Gates 
through which the Scythians and other European barbarians 
poured their hordes of wild warriors into Asia, which on her 
part retaliated by sending clouds of her nomadic children into 
Europe. This gate is situate at Dariela, of which a few 
traces only remain on the left of the Terek river, as the 
rocks on which it stood were blown up, in order to make 
room for the military road. It was most advantageously 
situated on a rock, the foot of which was washed by the 
Terek. The valley at this point is not 120 yards in width, 
and is bounded on either side by a steep and lofty hill. 

Dariela, called by the Ossetes " Dairan," lies on the fron- 
tiers of Georgia on the rivulet " Zach-don," which empties 
itself into the left of the Terek. Opposite to that place the 
Akhkara falls into its right, and a road runs along the latter, 
through the country of the Mukil and the Ingushes, into 
K'akhethi. The mountains here are composed of sienite 
intermixed with a few particles of glimmer; and close to 
Dariela, on the left side of the Terek, of green stone of the 
porphyry kind. 

According to the History of Georgia, Dariela was built 
by the third King Mirvan (167 — 123 b.c.) to protect his 
dominions against the Khasari, who inhabited the northern 
districts of the Caucasus. The name of Dariela seems to be 
of Tartar origin, for " Dar " or " Thar " signifies narrow, and 
"jol" or "jol" a way; consequently, " Darjol " means a 
narrow pass, and the valley is actually so narrow, that 300 
men might here, as at Thermopylae, easily withstand ever so 
numerous an army. 

The Georgians call it also Chevis-K'ari, or the Gate of 
Chevi (name for the upper part of the Terek Valley). Pliny 
doubtless means Dariela in the following description of the 
Caucasian Gate : — " In the country of the people of Iberia, 
the Diduri and Ssodi are the Caucasian gates, which by many 
are very erroneously called the Caspian — a prodigious work 
of nature, between abrupt precipices, where are gates closed 
with iron bars, under which runs the river " Diri odoris." 



GEOGRAPHY. 



9 



On this side of it, upon a rock, stands a castle, which is 
called Cumania, and is so strongly fortified as to be capable 
of withstanding the passage of an innumerable army." This 
description is not only perfectly applicable to Dariela, but 
the very Georgian name " Thergiss mdinari," the river 
"Tergl" (Terek), seems to be disguised in the appellation 
Diri odoris. The country on the west side of Dariela is yet 
called by the Ossetes " Koban," which reminds one of the 
fortress of Cumania mentioned by Pliny. 

Procopius is blamed by Pliny for applying the name of 
" Caspian " to the Caucasian Gates, but his description of 
Dariela is otherwise extremely correct. " Mount Taurus, in 
Cilicia, first runs into Cappadocia, and thence into Armenia, 
Persarmenia, Albania, and Iberia, and the people resident 
around it are partly free and partly dependent on Persia. It 
keeps increasing in magnitude, and it is almost incredible 
how much it augments both in width and height, the further 
it extends. Beyond the frontiers of Iberia is a narrow road, 
which leads through the most elevated valleys a distance of 
fifty stadia, and is so closely shut up by steep and inacces- 
sible rocks, that scarcely any outlet is to be seen. There 
nature has formed a pass, which you would suppose to have 
been constructed by art, and which is distinguished by the 
ancient appellation of the Caspian Gate. From this place 
extends a well-watered level tract, and the whole country is 
well adapted for the breeding of horses, as it contains many 
spacious plains. Here dwell almost all the tribes known 
by the name of Huns, and their settlements extend to the 
Pains Maeotis ; these, when they pass the above-mentioned 
gate to attack the Pomans and Persians, mount fresh horses, 
and make not the smallest circuit, as they have only this 
distance of fifty stadia to go before they reach the Iberian 
frontiers. If they pursue any other road, they have to endure 
great fatigue, being obliged to leave their horses behind, and 
to steal through the windings and deep defiles between the 
mountains. 

" Alexander, son of Philip, made aware of this, fortified 



10 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



the avenue with gates, and built a castle, which, after it 
had passed through various hands, at length came into the 
power of Ambazukes, by birth a Hun, who was a friend of 
the Eomans and of the Emperor Anastasius. After him, 
Kabades, King of Persia, made himself master of the 
gates." 

" Dairun," the Ossetian name of Dariel, is even preserved 
by the Byzantine historians ; for when Zemarches, who was 
sent a.d. 569 to the Turkish Khan at Ektag (Altai 
Mountains), was returning to Constantinople, and came to 
the country of the Alanes, who resided to the north of the 
Caucasus, their leader Sarodius advised him not to travel 
through the territory of the Minclimiani, because the Persians 
were lying in wait for him in the country of the Suanes, but 
rather to proceed home by the " Darinian Way." Zemarches 
then went by the Darinian road to Apsilia (in the modern 
Mingrelia), leaving the country of the Mindimiani on the 
left. (See M. v. Klaproth's " Caucasus.") 

The most glorious giant of the Caucasian Mountain range 
is the Elbruz. In the part of the Caucasian system where 
schist and limestone are overlying granite, he stands sur- 
rounded by a belt of conical porphyry peaks (every one of 
which towering above the snow line), a colossal pillar, 18,000 
feet in height above the level of the Black Sea. 

The word "Elbruz " is not in reality a proper name, but 
a general appellation of all lofty snow-clad mountains, and 
has been given even to the entire Caucasus on account of its 
elevated points covered with everlasting ice. This name is, 
however, of high antiquity. 

The Elbruz has been ascended several times, the first on 
the 22nd July, 1829. 

A bristling frontier of mountains, of nearly equal height, 
frowns both on Siberia and the Chinese Empire, sending out 
branches to the north and north-east of the lake Baikal. 
Extending from the High Irtysh into the southern part 
of the government of Tomsk, stands the formidable Altai 
System (21° long, and 52° 30' lat,). In Russiaitis composed 



GEOGRAPHY. 



11 



of the Altai Kolivan, or Little Altai, an undeserved title, as 
it covers more ground and possesses loftier peaks than the 
rest. Between the snowy Alps of Katooma and Tchouia, the 
majestic Bjelookka rears up her head to a height of 11,500 
feet above the sea level. It is in these trachytic mountains 
(by the Ancients called " Hills of Gold ") that the precious 
metals of Russia are found. One branch of the Altai, which 
from the lake Teletskoi runs off in a N.W, direction, under 
the name of the " Kuznetski," contains the plateau known 
as the " Poklonnaya Gora," or Bowing Mountain. It is 
continued in the east by the Sayane Chain, which gives birth 
to the Yenissei River. Advancing from here as far as 
53° 45' lat., under the name of " Ergik," these mountains, 
on approaching the Baikal, assume another alias, and become 
the Goorbi, or Toukinsk. 

On the extreme confines of China appear the Tchokoocls, 
followed by the " Yablonnovoi Khrebet " (Apple Mountains), 
which, on nearing the Sea of Okhotsk, is called the Stan- 
novoi Khrebet (Stately Hill). 

Returning from this end of the world to Europe, we should 
have to cross the Ural, a range of mountains stretching from 
south to north for more than 1100 miles, between the 53rd 
and 58th degrees longitude. Owing to the imperceptible 
rising of the earth's surface in those parts, we should feel 
surprised (on arriving at Bilimbayevsk) at finding ourselves 
at a height of 1600 feet above the level of the sea. This 
mountain range offers, however, comparatively speaking, 
little imposing and picturesque scenery. Branches of the 
Ural are the Gouberlinsk Hills, the Obshtshy syrte (common 
syrte), the Yougorkij Khrebet, which at the island of Vaigatsh 
thrusts its foot into the Glacial Sea. On the opposite 
shore of that same sea, in Lapland, the profile of the earth 
is disturbed by the last ramifications of the Scandinavian 
mountains, of which granitic masses, as if hurled there by 
the hands of Titans, are found all over Finland. Yolhynia 
and Podolia enclose the eastern extremities of the Karpathian 
Mountains. 



12 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Regarding the geological condition of the Russian Empire, 
especially of Russia in Europe and the Ural, it has been 
ascertained by eminent geologists, particularly by the late 
lamented Sir R. J. Murchison, Bart, that whilst the Lower 
Silurian is throughout the lowest fossiliferous type, it is also 
the base of a series of overlying formations, very distinctly 
referable to the Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Carboni- 
ferous groups ; and as the proofs of these natural divisions 
there extend over a very large portion of the earth and in a 
completely unaltered state, so are they still more clear than 
those offered by any one region hitherto examined. 

The reason for this is the all but entire absence of all 
traces of igneous agency, and the consequently undisturbed 
and unbroken condition of the paleozoic strata of this vast 
region — i.e., Russia in Europe and the Ural. 

Owing to this circumstance the distinct development of 
the earliest sedimentary strata may be traced and studied 
over a very wide space, and certain desiderata, not supplied 
by other countries, clearly determined. 

Sir Roderick has described a peculiar form of the carbo- 
niferous system, and given a detailed account of the coal- 
bearing tracts of Russia in Europe and the Ural by esta- 
blishing, under the name of u Permian " (so named after the 
ancient kingdom of Permia), a copious series of deposits, 
which form the true termination of the long paleozoic periods. 
This supra-carboniferous group spreads over a region of 
enormous dimensions in Russia, from the Volga to the Ural 
in the East, and from the Sea of Archangel to the southern 
steppes of Orenburg. 

The secondary period is in Russia far less represented than 
that of paleozoic date. There are no masses referable to red 
sandstone or Trias, nor are there any traces of Muschelkalk. 

The Jurassic deposits, consisting principally of shales and 
sands, covered detached districts of Russia from the Icy Sea 
to the Caucasus. 

The Cretaceous system is exclusively confined to the 
southern part of Russia. 



GEOLOGY. 



13 



Nearly, if not entirely, deficient in marine deposits of the 
Pliocene, or newer Tertiary period, the southern extremities 
of Kussia, from the confines of the Black Sea and of the Sea 
of Azov to the Caspian and Aral Seas, as well as wide tracts 
of Asia, the Crimea, and Caucasus, are composed of deposits 
which, distinctly overlying the oceanic tertiaries of the Miocene 
Age, are completely distinct from any other geological 
group hitherto described. Uniformly and copiously charged 
with a limited number of species of shells, more or less 
similar to those of the Caspian of the present day, these vast 
accumulations of the Steppes have been formed exclusively 
in the same brackish waters, that must once have occupied 
an area as large, if not larger, than the present Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

While the whole sedimentary superficies of Central Russia 
(forming nearly one-half of the Continent of Europe) has 
been disturbed only by broad, unclulatory movements, but 
not subjected to great disruptions, nor affected by any intru- 
sion of igneous matter, we find that, in the Ural and Siberia, 
formations of the same age as those above described have 
been thrown up in mural masses, broken into fragments, im- 
pregnated with minerals, and often inverted in their order. 
These wonderful phenomena occur along a grand meridian 
fissure in the earth's surface, through which copious masses 
of igneous matter have been evolved at intervals of very 
remote antiquity, whilst the chain has undergone elevation 
and even impregnation with gold ores at a period, geolo- 
gically speaking, not very distant from our own. 

An interesting phenomenon is the " tchornozjem," or black 
mould, covering vast tracts of Southern Central Russia, and 
which is even found in Siberia. Its origin has given rise 
to many conjectures, and puzzled geologists during a 
very long period ; but most men of science are now nearly 
all agreed as to its being a subaqueous formation pro- 
duced by the destruction of the Jurassic shale, and en- 
riched by the decomposition of aqueous plants and animal 
matter. 



14 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



This black loam is doubtless the best of all Kussian soils 
and of extraordinary fertility, yielding magnificent crops of 
cereals, of beetroot, madder, turnips, tobacco, &c. The 
tobacco grown in it in Bessarabia nearly equals the best 
Turkish in flavour. 

Astounding are the riches Kussia possesses in her mines ! 
Who has not heard of her precious stones, her gold, platina, 
and silver? But she can also boast of fine iron, copper, 
tin, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel lodes, as well as of her ex- 
tensive coal deposits. 

The gold mines most renowned in the mining world are 
situated in the Ural, the Altai and Nertchinsk in Siberia, 
and produce about one million sterling per annum. The 
heaviest nugget found weighed about 75 lbs. 

Of platina the mines of Neeshnei-Taghilsk produce about 
5000 lbs. weight per annum. The largest nugget discovered 
weighed nearly 18 lbs. 

The silver mines are exclusively confined to Asia, i.e., to 
the Altai. 

Copper and iron occur in all the systems named, but also 
in the Caucasus in great quantity and magnificent quality. 

A large tin mine is being worked at Irkoutsk. 

The coal, which occurs in large beds, consists chiefly of 
anthracite. 

Between the years 1745 — 1850, the mines of the Altai 
have produced about 1G00 tons of silver ; those of Nertchinsk, 
between 1704 — 1850, only 500 tons. The Altai has accord- 
ingly yielded at the annual rate of 16 tons of silver, Nert- 
chinsk but 3 \ tons. 

The Altai and the Yablonnovoi Khrebet furnish compara- 
tively little gold, but much iron. The principal gold-washeries 
are situated in the government of Tomsk, in the districts 
Atshinsk, Krasnoiarsk, Kansk, Yenisseisk, Neeshnei- 
Ordinsk, and Irkoutsk, Yerkhnei-Oodinsk, Zabaikalsk, and 
the district of Olegminsk (government of Yakutsk). 

These gold-washeries employ constantly about 40,000 men. 
About 150,000 are engaged in the working of the Altai 



MIXES. 



15 



mines (Tomsk), of whom 130,000 are Crown peasants, who 
must not be confounded with convicts. The Eertchinsk 
mines, in the district of Zabaikalsk, employ upwards of 
40,000 men, amongst which number are 25,000 peasants of 
the Crown and 3000 convicts. 



CHAPTER II. 



RIVERS AXD LAKES. 

Russia is traversed by many and gigantic rivers, of which 
the largest is the Volga, it being abont 2400 miles in length. 
It discharges its waters, together with the rivers Ural, Terek, 
Kour, and Araxes, into the Caspian Sea. The Sea of Azov 
receives the Don. Coming from the Caucasian steppes the 
fabulous Eion (or Phase of the Ancients) and the Kuban 
flow into the eastern part of the Black Sea, while on its 
opposite coast the same is clone by the Dnjepr, Dnjestr, 
and Boug. The - Baltic Sea is fed by the Dwena, the Neva, 
and the Niemen. The Icy Sea receives by far the greater 
share of water from Russia. The Northern Dwena, the 
Siberian river Mezam, the Petchora, the Obi, Irtysh, Yen- 
nisei, the Anabara, Lena, Jana, the Inclighuirka, and Kolyma 
all plunge into that sea. The Pacific Ocean receives the 
Anadyr, coming from the land of the Tchuktchi. 

Besides these principal arteries, Russia is studded with 
lakes, whose number it is hard to count. The largest are in 
Siberia, the Baikal measuring 34,000 square versts (seven 
versts equal to about four English miles), and the Teletskoi. 
Not far from St. Petersburg is the Ladoga lake, of 13,700 
square versts; to the N.E. the Onega, of 7700 versts; there 
are the Tchoudis, Peipous, and Pskof of Livonia, together, of 
4000 square versts. Near Novgorod we have the Hmen and 
the Bjelo Ozero ; near Archangel, the Imandra; and in 
Finland the Enara and Saima, and an infinity of lesser 
ones. 



CLIMATE. 



L7 



CLD1ATE. 

The disastrous retreat of the French from Moscow in 
1812, and the farspread, woful tale of their dreadful suffer- 
ings, have prohably been in a high degree the cause of the 
unfavourable reputation attaching to the Russian climate. 

It is no doubt in many parts of the country exceedingly 
severe, not only on account of the latitude, but also be- 
cause the Russian Continent, in the same measure, as one 
advances towards the east, is becoming more and more com- 
pact. The soft sea breezes have entirely disappeared, and 
made way instead for land winds, rude and icy, like the 
steppes, over which they pass. There being no natural 
shelter from them, their fury is annihilating in its effects. 

On the other hand, the sun is distressing in summer, 
and during sixty-six days in the latitude of St. Petersburg 
scarcely leaves the horizon at all. 

The climate in the south of Russia is on the whole exceed- 
ingly healthy. The air is dry, and in the summer months 
there is seldom a day without its kindly breeze. 

Autumn, on the shores of the Black Sea, is the most 
delightful season imaginable. The nights of September 
and October are still and mild, and lit up by the brightest 
moon. 

The most distressing feature of winter in South Russia are 
the frequent winds, that will penetrate the thickest furs and 
find their way into the houses, guarded though they be by 
double doors and windows. The temperature here rarely 
sinks far below zero ; still, owing to the above circumstance, 
out-door exercise, which in the north with a still cold of 
twenty or more degrees is pleasant and exhilarating, in 
Southern Russia becomes on windy days next to imprac- 
ticable. 

Siberia, with her colossal proportions, is of course subject 
to a great diversity of climate. While its northern parts 
experience all the horrors of intense cold, the south is gene- 
rally temperate. 

c 



18 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



The climatic regions of Eussia maybe classified as follows: — 
Making the Icy Sea the starting-point, we find, on pro- 
ceeding in a southward direction, that the glacial region 
descends as far as the 70th degree north latitude. Be- 
tween that and the 60th degree we have already woods, 
from the animal inhabitants of which the finest furs are 
obtained. At 60° lat, the climate permits of the rearing of 
cattle. 

Elementary agriculture and the cultivation of barley com- 
mence at 55° lat., that of rye and flax at 50°, of wheat and 
fruit at 45°, of maize and wine at 40°, and the remainder, 
down to 38° 30', constitutes the region of oil and the cotton 
tree, of silk and the sugar cane, products of annually in- 
creasing cultivation in Trans- Caucasia. 

Almost incredible is the yield of the vegetable kingdom in 
Eussia, particularly in that part of the country situated 
between the Karpathian Mountains and the Ural, which may 
be considered the real granary of Eussia. 

Immense quantities of grain of the finest quality, of Indian 
corn, of flax, hemp, hops, rape, and linseed, mustard-seed, 
tobacco, beetroot, madder, vegetables, and fruit (particularly 
grapes and melons), splendid building and other timber, 
are yearly produced, and many of them largely exported. 
The amount of cereals grown alone reaches as high a figure 
as 400 millions of quarters and upwards. 

The Crimean wines, but particularly those of Kakheti, in 
the Caucasus, are delicious and cheap. In 1864 the author 
paid in Yladikavkas for a bottle of the latter quality only 
about 10 to 15 copeks, or 4cL to 5c/. If bought in the skin, 
it was still cheaper, and a more wholesome and pleasant wine 
it would be difficult to find. The way of treating the wine is 
rather curious. Enormous sun-baked clay jars, turnip- 
shaped, and holding about 3000 to 6000 quarts, are buried 
in the ground, and filled with the juice of the grape. Their 
orifice (about 18' inches in diameter) is covered with a flag- 
stone, over which straw and earth is lightly heaped up to 
the level of the earth's surface. The gas created by fermen- 



ZOOLOGY. 



10 



tation makes its exit at leisure by lifting the cover, and 
escaping through the loose overlying matter. Fermentation 
over, the wine is pumped out and rilled into skins (of ox, 
sheep, or goat). One-third of the wine is generally spoilt 
and lost, owing to the imperfect, careless manner the last- 
mentioned operation is carried on, and by which the deposit 
at the bottom of the jar is stirred up. 

The most thickly timbered part of Russia is that of Nov- 
gorod ; but also Lithuania, Livonia, Esthonia, the Caucasus, 
and Siberia, as well as other provinces, possess immense 
forests. From the Caucasian Mountains a great quantity of 
veneering wood is annually exported. 

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM OF EUSSIA. 

The same is most richly represented in Russia. Besides 
our own ordinary species of domestic animals, we find there 
the camel, the bison of the Lithuanian forests, the reindeer, 
the wild horse, the buffalo, and extraordinarily extensive 
varieties of game. Well known are the costly furs of the 
sable, the ermine, marten, beaver, otter, the zibeline, and 
others. The sportsman finds ample spoil for his rifle in the 
bear (brown and white), the lynx, wolf and fox, the eland, 
three species of wild goat, the tur (a kind of argali), the red, 
roe, and fallow deer, the walrus and seal, the wild cat, jackal, 
etc. : — and in Siberia and the Caucasus he may even show his 
prowess by encountering the Mongolian tiger, quite equal to 
his Bengal brother in size and ferocity. In the Tcherkess 
country the panther is occasionally met with. There is, 
perhaps, no country in the world where the sportsman may 
pass his time so agreeably as at Yladikavkas. He will find 
there a tolerably good inn, splendid food, and excellent wine. 
He would soon become acquainted with the officers stationed 
there, and pass delightful hours in their hospitable houses 
and families. Some of them are sure to share his predilection 
for the chase, and introduce him to fields and woods possibly 
swarming with game. Unfortunately, many of the native 



so 



THE LAXD OF THE CZAR. 



sportsmen have been withdrawn from the country in conse- 
quence of the wholesale emigration of the Mohammetan 
tribes, which took place in 1864-65. Part of the tribes 
had gone to Bulgaria and Turkey proper, and another part 
went and settled in Asia Minor. Half of them, if not many 
more, died in the first year of the emigration, of want, typhus, 
and from other violent causes. The Turks detested them on 
account of their thievish propensities. The poor fellows had 
nothing to eat, and cattle-lifting and other modes of "con- 
veying " came natural to them. 

At the end of November, 1864, I was present at a great 
battue, at which about 1000 Ossetian warriors attended. 
I was on a visit to the chief of the Ossetes, M. M. K., who 
was also a general in the Caucasian militia (cavalry). Ac- 
companied by a Baron cle R, who was on his way to Tirlis 
on a little political mission of a very innocent character to 
His Imperial Highness the Grand Duke Michael, and who 
had rather doubted my narrations of Ossetian sport, seeming 
inclined to set them down as the usual sportsmen's latin, I 
begged my Ossetian friend to give the baron a practical 
demonstration of the chase of his native mountains. To this 
the kind General at once consented. ■ That same night he 
sent messengers into all his villages, and the next morning 
brought us about 1000 horsemen, who, surrounding part of 
a thicket in the Black Mountains (a parallel of the Caucasus), 
drove the game towards us. The amount of game that met 
our guns was most astonishing — four bears, a large number of 
wild hogs, deer, foxes, and hares were killed. The most 
interesting sport was that attending the bagging of the bears. 
They had sneaked out at the side, and were running through 
the valley leading to the prairies which connect the Black 
Mountains to the great Caucasian chain at a distance of 
about twenty miles. But they were seen by the boys of the 
valley, who, at once mounting their horses, came full speed 
to where we were, and reported their observations to Affago, 
the brother of the General. This man, a second Nhnrod in his 
way, lost no time in spurring after the fugitives, whom he 



ZOOLOGY. 



•21 



also overtook in the midst of the snow-covered plain. With- 
out a moment's thought he pushed his well-trained steed up 
to the old bear, whom he succeeded in dispatching by a 
whisper into the ear from his one-bore gun. To avoid the 
charge of the widowed she-bear, and to gain time for loading 
his gun (an operation performed by these people with incre- 
dible dexterity) , he made a little detour at full speed. With his 
gun ready again for action, he at once returned to the charge, 
and dispatched the female animal as promptly as he had 
finished her mate, after which feat he killed the two cubs (half 
grown) at his leisure. The two old bears were as big as any 
brown bear I had ever seen. They, as also their young, had 
a large white spot as big as a plate between the shoulders. 
In the spring following I had a young one of the size of a small 
shepherd's dog presented to me, but the little playful fellow 
managed to tear my coat and scratch my hands, before I had 
had him five minutes, to such a degree, that I had to decline 
the pleasure of his company home. 

Amongst the kinds of bovines the most remarkable is the 
SaratofT ox, a splendid, gigantic animal of beautiful form and 
colour. There is a smaller kind in use amongst the Ossetes 
of the Terek, which gained my admiration by its great strength, 
activity, and endurance. Of slender, deer-like build, it has 
a stride so long and brisk that it is next to impossible for 
the ploughman to follow it without running, and the driver 
simply never attempts walking by the side of the. animal, 
but takes his seat at once on the yoke between the heads of the 
beasts. The Government has tried to increase the size and 
weight of this noble animal by crossing it with the great 
SaratofT breed, but the experiment has generally miscarried 
through the quality of the water, which, being mostly supplied 
by the mountain torrents, and therefore loaded with a fine 
sand, becomes fatal in its use to the last-named ox, while 
the pure Osset breed drinks it with impunity. 

All the Kussian bovines are, on the whole, excellent working 
material, while their beef is of superior flavour. The cows, 
however, do not yield either much or fine milk. Gifted by 



22 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



nature with great strength, hard and sound hoofs, and an 
extraordinary power of endurance, they are able to perform 
journeys of a surprising length. Their food, while crossing 
the endless steppe, baking under the cloudless sky of July, 
often consists of most wretched materials ; and sometimes it 
happens that they have to go for several days without a drop 
of water. Some of the weaker beasts, of course, will suc- 
cumb, and become the food of the vulture. Their bleaching 
bones remain to remind the passer-by of the cruelty of 
man and the patient fidelity of the gentle animal drudge. 
These oxen are mostly of a light fawn colour, with black 
muzzle, eyes, and tips. Their eyes are beautifully gentle 
and soft, and it is really difficult to meet with a vicious 
specimen. 

In Trans- Caucasia the buffalo is extensively employed. 
Its strength considerably exceeds that of the common ox, but 
its wayward habits render its use rather irksome to farmer 
and carrier. A caravan of buffaloes, for instance, on scenting 
water will at once break into a regular stampede. Nothing 
will stop the animals, and madly they rush into river or 
swamp, dragging their freight behind them. They are 
moreover rather delicate, require careful feeding and water- 
ing, and their skin must frequently be rubbed with oil to 
prevent it getting cracked and sore. Their feet also are 
more tender than those of the ox, and require shoeing. It 
is rather an amusing sight, this shoeing process. They are 
led between four stout posts ; their position is then without 
further ceremony reversed. Lying on their backs, with their 
feet fastened to the posts, they have to submit, nolens volens, 
to the blacksmith's hammer and tongues. The milk of the 
buffalo is rich and fine in flavour, but the yield is small. 
They are destructive to orchards and young plantations on 
account of their rubbing and leaning against such trees, and 
nibbling the young bark and shoots. 

The camels employed in South Eussia seem to be better- 
tempered animals than their Egyptian brethren. A caravan 
of perhaps 200 or more of these beasts, when winding along 



ZOOLOGY. 



53 



the serpentine track of one of the great mountain passes (as 
the writer saw them on the Kazbek), offers a strikingly grand 
sight. They object to frozen, slippery roads, and may be 
seen to lie down and scream with fright ; their feet, made 
for the warm sand of the desert, must feel out of place on 
the ice. 

The Russian sheep is justly celebrated for its wool, and is 
bred in enormous herds. There are sheep farmers who 
possess from 200,000 to 500,000 of these animals. They 
are mostly of the merino breed, yielding a short-stapled 
wool. 

A peculiar animal is the Crimean sheep, on account of its 
great tail, which, owing to its disproportionate, fatty deve- 
lopment, sometimes grows to such a size as to require a 
little sledge or cart for its support. This tail is, however, 
very good eating, and much esteemed by gourmands not too 
particular about fat. 

The Caucasian mountain sheep is small, but its wool of 
very fine quality. Its only drawback is its being infested 
by small prickly seed-capsules of a kind of thistle growing 
on the mountain glens, on which the animal grazes. These 
tiresome bodies get so firmly entangled in the wool, as to 
become almost one with it, and it is probably owing to this 
circumstance that the wool has as yet no place on the great 
European markets. The meat surpasses the best Welsh 
mutton in flavour. 

All the world has heard of the astounding quantities of 
tallow, meat, skins, and wool produced by the numberless 
herds of cattle and sheep reared on the Russian steppes. 
These articles form a considerable portion of the revenues of 
the Russian commercial and agricultural world. 

The Russian horse deserves a larger share of space than 
this work can afford. The chapter treating of the Cossacks 
and their habits exhausts the subject as far as the Cossack 
nag is concerned. 

The greatest sport the Russian gentleman knows is fast 
driving. He therefore does not spare either trouble or 



24 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



money in providing the material necessary to procure him 
the most complete gratification of that fancy. A good 
pair of fast-trotting carriage-horses of Count OrlofT's breed 
fetches sometimes as much as £1000. They are very fine- 
looking animals, but only fit for town use. They are inva- 
riably driven without blinkers ; for the Russian coachman 
says, " Give a horse every chance to look about and ex- 
amine every object before him, and he will not shy." These 
horses require great care, as they are rather tender. 

Count Branitzki has a stud at Bjela-Dzerkoff, in the 
government of Kiev, producing a very fine and useful breed 
of horses. They have much blood, are lighter in build, very 
fast, and enduring. 

The German colonists have also very good and serviceable 
horses, but of a light build. Whoever has travelled by the 
Russian post has had plenty of opportunity for admiring the 
enduring swiftness of the poor, overdriven, and often badly- 
fed post-horse. No other horse in the world could perform 
the work of these animals. For 12 or 15 miles they will 
gallop before the telya, and return again with hardly ten 
minutes' interval. If the traffic be lively, they have per- 
haps on their return to perform the same journey over again 
before they can snatch a few hours' rest on their bed of 
buryan (steppe-weecl). Often has the writer admired them, 
pitied them, and wished them a better lot ; but how could he 
have done without them ? 

The Tcherkess of the Great and Little Kabardah breed a 
splendid race of horses. Brought up in the wild steppe, 
amidst clangers and nightly alarms, its apprehensive sagacity 
becomes early developed in a high degree. It is a fine 
animal, with a strong spine, powerful croop and thigh, and 
great width of shoulder and chest ; the kneecaps are broad, 
the hoof as if formed of iron, head and neck tolerably light ; 
everything seems combined to render them trusty, inde- 
fatigable servants to man. The Tchetchents, the most fero- 
cious and determined brigands of the Caucasus (now for- 
tunately only in small numbers), used to buy their horses in 



HORSES, 



25 



the Kabarclah. They pick out the most promising one-year- 
olds, take them home, where they are, so to say, received 
into the bosom of the family. They receive their food when 
the latter sits down to a meal, and they often sleep in the 
same room. The young children will play with them, talk 
to them, and crawl all day long over and about them ; what 
wonder if the horse becomes almost as wise as its master ! 
The young boys will sometimes mount him and gallop over 
the prairies, but no adult thinks of bestriding him before he 
has finished his sixth year. His bones have then become 
firmly developed, his sinews and feet are steel, his wind is 
invincible. He knows his master's voice and look — nay, he 
has even some notion of his character. His nerves have 
from his birth been finely tuned Ho the sound of danger or 
mysterious enterprise. It knows when its brigand master is 
on an expedition of risk and unlawful daring . A whispered 
word sends him down into the high steppe-weed or bushes 
situated near the road at a place where the latter is difficult, 
where a convenient ditch is at hand to receive a carriage 
and its human freight. In breathless silence both wait for 
what may turn up. The ears of the Tchetchentsian Black 
Bess sliiy move to every waft of the light wind, and before 
the man can hear the slightest sound he sees by the de- 
meanour of his steed that business will soon be at hand. 
Hark ! a faint sound of the postal bell (fastened to the pole 
of the vehicle) strikes his ear, he feels for his gun, his pistol, 
his razor-edged sword, the large dagger (kintckal), and 
breathlessly awaits the apjDroach of the travellers. Not a 
single thought bestowing on the probable number or quality 
of the foe, he stands over his horse, which slowly gathers 
his feet up beneath him. At last the moment for action 
has arrived. The carriage is just at the right distance from 
the ditch or other accidental difficulty of the road — a soft 
touch, and horse and man are up. With the bound of a 
tiger the horse pounces upon the leaders, attacking them 
with hoof and tooth. Simultaneously the rider has fired at 
the driver ; mad with terror the post-horses have jumped off 



26 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



the road, precipitating the carriage in the hole, and before 
its inmates have time to feel for their revolvers, they are 
eased of at least part of their property, and may thank God 
if they have not broken neck and limb in their fall. Before 
they recover from their fright, the Tchetchent is already 
several miles on his gallop home. He has a hard ride before 
him, and he, as well as his cunning quadruped, knows it full 
well ; for to-morrow there will be an inquiry about where 
Muhamed, or Arsslan Bey, or Moussa, were that night. With 
a calm smile our brigand friend replies to the Eussian 
Grado-Natchalnik's question : " Where should I have been 
but here ? The robbery was committed near the Akhonskoy 
Stanitzi, 150 versts (80 miles) from here, and what? at 
9 o'clock you say; why, iVas here at 12, as I can prove, 
and I could not ride that distance in three hours." The 
officer, up to Tchetchents tricks, and anything but satisfied, 
turns to the steed to discover from her aj)pearance the effects 
of so severe a ride ; but the nag is quietly eating his corn, 
and looking as contented and playful as if he knew that his 
master's safety depended on his brave bearing. 

The taboons, or great horsebreecling establishments of the 
Eussians, have been so often and ably described, that we will 
confine its description to a few pages only. 

The taboon has no particular fixed locality, but moves 
about the immense estate of the proprietor, according to the 
condition of the pasturage. It is placed under the direction 
of a head-herdsman, or taboontchick, who, with his assistants, 
attends to all the management of the horses and to their 
safety from horse-thieves and wolves. As he is responsible 
for every horse of his herd, his vigilance and constant 
application are such as only a taboontchick (chosen mostly 
from the Cossacks) could stand. He knows no sheltering 
roof, but must be on the alert night and day, if he would not 
risk the loss of the hard- won earnings of the whole year. 
Sleeping, so to say, with one eye open, he must be ready on 
the slightest alarm to spring into the saddle and assist the 
brave stallions in their defence of mares and foals against 



HORSES. 



27 



the wolves or other thieves. Winter, it may he imagined, is 
a dreadful time for him, and carries off many of his flock by 
the difficulty of providing food, by the annihilating snow- 
storms, by the increased number of ravenous wolves. Count 
Yevtakimoff, the military governor of Cis-Caucasia, whose 
seat is at Stavropol, having kindly permitted the writer of 
this book to visit his estate of Vesen, near Pjatigorsk, 
afforded him the opportunity of inspecting his well-managed 
taboon. The mares are of the Cabardian race, the stallions 
of Arabian or English blood. One of them, a powerful 
black Arabian, was one of the most magnificent animals 
one could meet with. There was also a tall, dark-brown 
Asiatic specimen of great bone and power. Its decidedly 
roman nose, however, rather spoilt its otherwise splendid 
appearance, and it was precisely that unfortunate nose 
which nearly broke the narrator's neck, for the English bridle 
refusing to fit the extraordinary nasal construction, had to be 
superseded by one of native manufacture, the use of which was 
not as yet known to the stranger. The horse — which, having 
been on the farm during the winter, was exceedingly fresh 
and anxious to rejoin the ladies — on finding that he " had his 
head," at once with a prodigious bound clearing the gate, 
sped along the prairies at lightning speed in the direction 
of the taboon. Arriving at one of the precipitous declivities 
on the terrace-like steppe, your humble servant already held 
his neck at a cheap price, but the mountain-bred animal, up 
to his work, never abating speed, skipped down the rough and 
steep descent as lightly as any chamois, and in another ten 
minutes saluted his family with a joyful neigh. We were in 
the midst of the herd, but it consisted here only of colts, as 
they had driven off the mares to some other place, which we 
visited subsequently. The place was admirably chosen in a 
circular natural enclosure, half of which was formed by steep 
but low hills, and the other by the Kuma river. In the 
centre stood a large tent, constructed with sheep skins, and 
at its entrance waited the manager of the taboons, Krym 
Gerai, a Nogai prince, to bid welcome to the new arrival. 



is 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



He was a splendid specimen of his tribe, tall and well grown. 
A long black beard flowed over bis broad chest, and his 
bearing was truly princely in natural grace and dignity. 
He stood there, the kingly representative of his once so 
glorious nation, now, alas ! but a memento of advancing 
civilization (?) Nothing could exceed his courtesy and kind- 
ness. He took* us himself to see the mares, and on our 
return invited us to a highly acceptable lunch,, though it 
consisted of mutton cutlets of surprising length, which we 
had to eat ex Jistibus, there being no proper knife nor plate 
in the place. Sitting on his simple bed, which was covered 
with a fine panther's skin, we talked about this and that for 
an hour or so, and then bade leave to the good prince, with 
warm feelings of mutual interest and friendship. , On our 
ride from one taboon to the other an amusing incident 
occurred, illustrating the practical quality of these horses. 
One of the Tartars had dismounted, allowing the horse to 
follow behind at its leisure. The latter had strayed from the 
narrow path to the precipitous hillside, where it seemed to 
find food more to its taste than on the plain. Suddenly we 
heard a crash, and on turning round saw the wayward bay 
roll over and over down the declivity, until at last it was 
stopped by the river, winding round the foot of the rocks. 
We all expected to see it carried away by the waves, a 
mangled corpse, but to our delight it at once jumped on its 
legs and took advantage of the opportunity for assuaging its 
thirst; this done, it soon rejoined the company by a path 
evidently known to it. The joy of its master at seeing his 
pet restored to him safe and sound was touching to witness. 
He kissed it and stroked it, and danced about it like one 
bereft of his senses. 

All the Caucasian tribes take great pride in training their 
steeds to most complete dependence on the bridle. Training 
is considered perfect only when the horse can be turned to 
an immovable statue at any moment of its most break-neck 
career. This practice, the utility of which is not apparent, 
tends to destroy the sinews of the horse's legs at an unneces- 



GAME, 



29 



sarily premature age, and cannot be witnessed by European 
riders and lovers of the noble animal without a disagreeable 
sensation shooting through their hearts. In order to attain to 
a perfect performance of this trick, the Tcherkess rider grasps 
the bridle (which consists but of a snaffle with narrow light 
reins of linen-thread material) immediately behind the head 
of the horse, which is powerfully pulled back, so as to make 
the throat assume the appearance similar to that of the 
flying stag. It was for this reason that the author, unac- 
quainted at the time with this practice, nearly allowed 
Roman-nose to break his neck. 

Amongst the foals were some that had marks of ghastly 
wounds of hour-glass shape on their flanks and thighs. We 
were told that they proceeded from the bite of the wolf, who, 
swimming through the Kama, from night to night attempted 
to carry off a strong foal or two, but that the colts often 
succeeded in driving the enemy from the field. The colts 
marked in the above way fetch frequently double prices, as 
they are considered to possess the courage so highly valued 
in the Tcherkess steed. 

A powerful, fleet, and extremely hardy animal is the horse 
of the Kirghiz tribes, and is being exported in large num- 
bers to Germany, and, it is said, even to England. A 
better cavalry horse it would be difficult to find. 

The Russian forests abound with every variety of game. 
Their lakes and swamps are covered by every kind of water 
fowl, including the pelican, stork, crane, wild swan, duck, 
goose, &c. The Icy Sea provides the world with the light and 
warm down of the eider-duck. In the Caucasus, the native 
land of the pheasant, we find that bird in prodigious numbers. 
The partridge tribe is spread over every part of the country. 
One kind in the Caucasus sometimes attains the size of 
the common fowl. The "Rabtchik" (fr. jellinotte - 3 germ, 
Haselhuhri) is also anything but rare, and perhaps the most 
dainty game in flavour that one could wish for. 

As regards the wild beasts, the bear may be met with in 
all the Russian forests and mountain ranges. Ill-tempered 



30 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



and rough a customer as Brain certainly is, he at times 
gives proof of a certain quaint hnmour. A Cossack officer 
told ns once a very amnsing story of a bear who attacked 
his troop — -just when they had settled down for the night 
in some sheltered spot in the Kazbek pass, and were cooking 
their suppers — by rolling huge stones into the camp. Per- 
haps he intended by this gentle hint to remind them only of 
his presence and readiness for a share of their supper, the 
fumes of which had roused his appetite ; maybe also that 
this was the bearish way of serving notice to quit. The 
hospitable Cossacks inclined to take the milder view of the 
case, and insisted on Bruin's presence at supper, only in a 
way the worthy beast had not bargained for, for soon his 
steaks were more than warmed by the intruders' fire. 

In Southern Siberia and on the Caspian Sea, the so-called 
Mongol tiger is yet to be met with in considerable numbers, 
and the carcass of a tigress, which the author examined at 
Tiflis, whither it was brought at the end of 1864, was quite 
as large as any of the Bengal species he had ever seen. The 
Tcherkessian forests still harbour j)anthers and wild cats, 
not to speak of the wolfs and foxes, which are there as in 
any other part of Russia. 

Adventurous tales of encounters with the wolf in Russia 
are familiar to every fireside of the civilized world, and do 
not require repetition here. The author has during his 
travels met wolves often, but been in no case attacked by 
them. One winter day, not far from Stavropol, a troop of 
eleven big fellows crossed his road at 40 yards' distance. 
They all looked at the travelling party, but quietly pursued 
their way. The drivers (" Yamshtchicks ") laughingly sang 
out to them, and when asked what they would do if they 
fell amongst them on their return at night, seemed astonished 
at anyone supposing the wolves to be dangerous animals. 
These men carry no arms whatever. They did so at one time, 
when the country was still rendered unsafe by the Tcherkess, 
but the Government, finding that (thinking it absurd to 
carry arms and not use them) they sometimes experimented 



WOLVES. 



31 



on their own passengers, has long since removed the temp- 
tation. 

In Bessarabia the peasants shoot the wolves in a singular 
manner. They make little horns of the bark of the birch 
tree, on which they most deceptively imitate the howl of the 
wolf. In the autumn season, just before sunset, they go into 
the woods ; and, concealing themselves behind a tree, they 
begin to howl on the horns. This almost invariably brings 
the wolves, which are then shot down. The author once saw 
two peasants go into a wood situated at a hundred yards' 
distance from a farm building, where he was talking to the 
proprietor, Mr. Gr. Krupensky, whose hospitality he was at 
the time enjoying. Not many minutes after the call of the 
horn was heard, and soon followed by several reports from 
the guns of the sportsmen. In another minute the latter 
appeared, each carrying a wolf on his back. It must be 
remarked, however, that the animals caught in this way are 
only pups of about nine months, for the old wolf is far too 
wary a customer to be taken in by the peasant's horn. In 
recent times the wolves are being rapidly destroyed by 
strychnine, whenever they show themselves in the more 
civilized provinces. 



CHAPTEE III. 



THE POPULATION OF RUSSIA. 

The Russian nation has been estimated to exceed seventy 
millions of souls, of which about 75 per cent, belong to the 
agricultural classes, or peasants ; seven millions to the middle 
class ; 600,000 to the clerical ; and one million to the aris- 
tocracy. About 80 per cent, of this number are of Slavonic 
blood, amongst them about fifty millions of Russ. 

The nobles, enjoying the advantage of a superior education, 
are in no way distinguished from the same class in other 
nations ; and it is, therefore, only to the " Moozhiks," or 
peasants, that one must look for national character and 
originality. At once gay, bold, and cunning, the Moozhik is 
naturally good-hearted — without being troubled by any par- 
ticular principle, and eager in the pursuit of gain — yet 
charitable to his suffering neighbour, and proverbially hos- 
pitable to the stranger within his gates. 

To the Slavonic race belong : 
1st. The Russians of Great and Little Russia, of White and 
Black Russia, or the Russnjacks, the Cossacks of the 
Ukraine, of the Don, Ural, Siberia, Caucasus, &c. 
2nd. The Poles, who, besides the kingdom of Poland, inhabit 
the provinces of Volhynia and Podolia. 
The Lettish race, of which but one tribe extant. 
The Fins, to which race belong the Esthonians, Livo- 
nians, Carelians, Laps, Zyrians, Permians, Tchouvaks, 
Tcheremissians, Votyaks, Mordvans, Ostyaks, and 
Voguls. 



RUSSIAN EACES. 



33 



What is called the Tartar race are Turks under Mongolian 
supremacy. They are divided into Tartars of Kasan, Astra- 
khan, of the Crimea, and Siberia — in Xogay and their 
branches, &c, and generally counted to them are the Bash- 
kirs, Kirghiz, Meshtsheriaks, Teptarians, Yakouts, and 
others. 

The Mongolian race is altogether distinct from the pre- 
ceding one. Besides the real Mongols it is composed of 
Kalmuks and Booriats. 

The Mandtchu race, more exclusively Asiatic, comprises 
the Tungouse and Lamouts of the Sea of Otchotsk. 

To the Caucasian race are generally counted the Georgians, 
Imerethians, Mingrelians, and the Lazes, which the Russians 
indiscriminately call " Grusinians." There is, moreover, the 
ancient race of the Armenians, and, finally, an infinite num- 
ber of tribes of Mountaineers, of which the principal ones 
are the Lesghi, Ossetes, Tcherkess, Askhases, Abassians, 
Ssuanians, &c. 

The Germanic race is composed of Germans and some 
Swedes, and the greater portion of it belongs to the 
bourgeoisie of St. Petersburg and other cities, as well as of 
the Baltic provinces, and to the aristocracy and clergy of the 
latter. This race dates its first settlement in the Baltic as 
far back as the twelfth century. A considerable influx of 
German artists, artizans, merchants, miners, and men of 
science and learning took place during the sixteenth cen- 
tury, their number ever increasing since Peter the Great. 
From the time of Catharina II. German colonies have been 
founded in every direction. These colonists formerly enjoyed 
considerable privileges. The latter having been the prin- 
cipal inducement to their settling in Russia, the present 
generation feels very sore in consequence of recent encroach- 
ments on the same on the part of the Government. In conse- 
quence of their having now become subject to the new Compul- 
sory Military Service Act, many of the German colonists are 
preparing for a retnrn to their native country, by which act, 
it is feared, they will but illustrate the jump from the frying- 



34 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 

pan into the fire. They ought to consider that the county 
which gave birth and affluence to most of them has a right to 
exact from them an equal share in its burdens and services. 

We now come to the more intimate characteristic de- 
scription of the principal races inhabiting the mighty Empire 
of Russia. 

M. de Pauly's magnificent work on " Les Peuples de la 
Russie" has perhaps exhausted this subject in the most 
complete manner, and cannot be recommended sufficiently to 
the reader's attention. Owing, however, to the costly style 
in which it has been got up, it is beyond the reach of the 
greater part of the public, and can never become a popular 
book. In the succeeding pages will be contained many 
passages from the same, which may perhaps induce the 
reader to apply to the original for a more complete description 
of this interesting subject. 

1ST. THE RUSSIANS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 

The precise definition of the Russian character is one of 
the most difficult tasks to be fulfilled, although all that is 
strictly Russian in the picture intended to portray, is pecu- 
liarly conspicuous, and such as to strike the reader's per- 
ception at first sight. 

This character, in fact, owes its present mould to a multi- 
tude of circumstances, historical and social, but, looking at it 
as a whole, one cannot but recognize a remarkable singularity 
attaching to it. 

Only that man who can sympathize with the Russian 
character can hope to understand and to define it. The basis 
of the character, and the prime mover of all the actions of 
the Russian is the heart with its light and shade, its noble 
sensations and its erroneous impulses. 

His cunning, superficiality, indolence, instability, intem- 
perance, and prodigality are faults not instilled in him by 
Nature, but which he has acquired under the influence of 
accidental circumstances, and of a too precipitate process of 
civilization. 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



35 



The Russian, representing the generality of the people, is 
good, simple-minded, and of a quiet disposition, trusting in 
his God, and full of resignation. 

A certain patriarchal spirit pervades all his thoughts and 
acts, and the observer is struck by a singular facility with 
which he is impressed by exterior influences and events. 

Ardently devoted to his religion and his country, for which 
he is ready to make any sacrifice, the Russian considers the 
" White Czar " to be the supreme personification of both. 
In his eyes, the Czar is the only legitimate sovereign of the 
whole world. His orders, or those of his officers, are executed 
without reserve, and the word " prikazano " admits of no 
appeal. An inviolable fidelity attaches the Russ to the 
throne, to the Church, and to the ancient national customs, 
be they good or bad. 

The earth of his fathers, Holy Russia, the confraternity 
of all the Russians under the sceptre of the Czar, the com- 
mon faith, the relics of the saints, and the graves of his 
ancestors, they all form a whole of peculiar harmony, such 
as to absorb all his feelings, and to fill his whole heart. 

Just as the Russian considers every one of his country- 
men to be his brother, in contrast to the foreigner, so has 
he particular denominations and sentiments for his (even 
the most distant) relations. He is attached to the country 
which he inhabits, even to its natural condition, by the ties 
of a kind of a relationship. He calls the Czar, the priest, 
the aged, " father;" his equals, "brother;" and even his 
superiors give the latter appellation to their inferiors, 
although in that case some difference in the pronun- 
ciation marks the distinction. The "brat" (brother), 
sounds then more like " brits." The man of the people 
often addresses his superior even with " Thou," and speaks 
of Russia, of the town of Moscow, of the grand river Yolga, 
&c, as of his mothers. 

Notwithstanding the goodness of his heart and his resig- 
nation, the system of oppression and contempt which for so 
long have weighed him down, the Russian peasant, guided 

D 2 



30 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



by his instincts of sociability, bis practical good sense and 
subtle judgment, bad never entirely lost the recollection of 
bis former personal liberty. At the bottom of bis soul this 
remembrance bad always been kept alive and cberisbed. 

As tbere bave been nations who preferred their ancient 
independence to the material well-being they enjoyed under 
foreign rule, so the Russian peasant, once become a free 
man, has paid far less regard to the conditions of his eman- 
cipation than to the great fact of his real liberation itself. 

An opinion has been current among a great number of 
proprietors (which has even found its way to foreign circles), 
as to the peasant not yet being ripe for that liberty — that 
he was too much accustomed to look upon his master in the 
light of a protector or father. The sequel has, however, 
proved this opinion to have been altogether erroneous ; and 
the following incident (by no means an isolated one) will go 
far in refuting all the premature fears entertained on that 
account. " Some old peasants on receiving the decree of 
liberation, reverently uncovered their heads, made the sign 
of the holy cross, and lifting their eyes to Heaven (mentally 
calling down its blessings upon the head of the Czar), with 
the fervent accent of deep gratitude and of firm conviction, 
exclaimed: " God be praised ! We have lived at least one 
day as free men, and may now depart this life in peace ! " 

The Russian, by his life of the steppe, in bis immense 
forests, on the gigantic rivers abounding with fish, on his 
stormy lakes, is constantly brought into contact with nature. 
His mind is thereby rendered practical; and, while free 
from all morbid sentimentality, he proves by his behaviour 
to dumb animals, his innate fondness for Nature, the mother 
of all. With caresses and terms of endearment the " yam- 
shtshik" (post-boy) will animate his horses; and, hard as 
the Russian is as regards his own bodily comforts, to his 
domestic beast he is invariably kind. 

A most characteristic trait of his disposition is his ready 
hospitality, his open hand in the presence of distress and 
want. Without asking about religion or rank of the 



GKEAT-EUSSIANS. 



37 



benighted wanderer that knocks at his door, he places the 
treasures of his larder, his cellar, and his best room at the 
disposal of his guest ; and, notwithstanding his love of 
money, he does not dream of receiving payment for his 
hospitality. The aged, the decrepit beggar at his door, 
even the wretched criminal dragging his chains to a Siberian 
prison, never go empty from his village; for even the 
poorest villager will fumble for some stray coppers in his 
pocket, in order that he too may contribute his mite towards 
the relief of his fellow-man. 

The Eussian cares little for his parental hearth, or for the 
parish soil he helps to cultivate. The cause of this indiffer- 
ence is the absence of landed property amongst the peasants. 
In their villages the Russians feel themselves intimately 
bound only to their families, their neighbours, to the parish, or 
to individuals, but not to the ground or the place they inhabit ; 
and in this respect they strikingly differ from the Germanic 
and Latin races, and even from the western Slavonians, in 
whom the love of the paternal hearth is inextinguishable. 

Of all men the Russian is perhaps the most capable of 
creating a comfortable existence for himself ; but as to his 
feeling any love for or taking any pride in his profession 
or pursuits (a quality which so highly distinguishes the 
English and the Germans), he is perfectly unconscious 
of the same. The latter nations love their calling, and 
follow it up with iron perseverance, constantly striving for 
perfection. They recognize the hand of Providence in the 
position they gain for themselves, and consider it almost a 
religious duty to remain strictly faithful to the once chosen 
profession, art, or trade. The Russian, on the contrary, 
looks upon the matter from a perfectly different point of 
view. Whatever he sees, hears, or gets a notion of, he at 
once, by hook or by crook, attempts to turn to his advan- 
tage ; and he esteems his work only in as much as it is a 
means of gaining money. In fixing a price for the same, he 
goes by neither principle nor rule ; he simply tries to get as 
much as he possibly can. He has not the slightest notion 



38 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



of that feeling of honour, of that conscientious zeal, which 
animate the dutiful workman, making him strive to produce 
a work as solid and as perfect as possible ; his aim is but a 
good appearance and speedy achievement, that he may 
quickly turn it into money. 

If one trade does not succeed, he at once passes to another. 
Often the same varies with the seasons, localities, and other 
circumstances. In the meantime, his taste for traffic and 
small speculation lead him into every kind of business, until 
he at last settles down somewhere; and if chance and 
circumstances favour him, he ends by becoming a real 
merchant. Although his trade may have made a rich man 
of him, he does not therefore love it more in the least ; it 
is and remains in his eyes but a medium to profit and 
opulence. If he have children, he will have perhaps one of 
the boys educated in a manner best calculated to render him 
a valuable assistant to himself. As regards the others, he 
thinks and labours day and night to provide for them an 
education which will qualify them for the military and civil 
service, and thus to start them on the road to nobility. 

The peasant, as already said, is good, simple-hearted, and 
of an excellent temper, and great kindness of heart ; but, 
as he gets well-off in the world, the natural candour and 
loyalty of his disposition too often diminish in the same 
proportion. 

The importance of position being a matter of great 
moment — rank, title, money — in brief, all which is condi- 
tional to influence, has in Russia an exceedingly high value. 
But, after all, where has it not? Everybody may try for 
whatever place in the government service, for there exists 
no privilege of class in that respect. There is hardly any 
spirit of caste, but also no " esprit de corps," and not enough 
conscience to support a severe sense of duty. 

The acquisition of good and lucrative posts is considered a 
highly desirable and pleasant aim to strive for ; but the con- 
scientious fulfilment of the duties incumbent on the same is 
a perfectly different matter, and capable of much elasticity. 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



39 



The Russian is patient and calm, a fatalist to a certain 
extent. " God wills it so ! " " What is there to be done ? " 
" Such is fate ! " are exclamations constantly in his mouth. 
He is a man of sentiment rather than conviction ; sensitive 
to first impressions; but in his appreciation he reflects 
rarely on the motives which stimulate his acts ; he therefore 
has no perfectly clear opinions of his own, and constantly 
falls into contradictions. He is credulous, exclusive in his 
judgment, curious and talkative, extreme to exaggeration, 
more generally yielding to the sensations of his heart than 
acting according to fixed principles. For this reason he is 
capable of the most ridiculous and again of the noblest acts. 
This want of reflection renders anything like discipline, 
perseverance, constant devotion, and stability irksome and 
difficult to him. 

The Russian is not vindictive, somewhat rude, perhaps, 
but good-hearted, and is keenly alive to justice. He will 
support an act of severity, if accompanied by a certain bon- 
hommie and marks of interest. He who has to rule him must 
take care not to let himself be suspected of any vacillation 
in words or deeds, for the Russian requires positive decision, 
especially in matters opposed to his opinion or will. In the 
presence of indecision in the orders given, he at once becomes 
restive and recalcitrant. But all must be done in a certain 
paternal spirit ; in all domestic institutions and rules, in 
business transactions, the voice of a father must ever be 
blended with the most imperious discipline. The Russian is 
extremely fond of social joys, and there is no severer punish- 
ment for him than solitude. 

Sensuous fellow that he is, he detests rule or a systemati- 
cally-ordered existence. He requires the most complete 
" se laisser aller," for he will move at his ease, remain at 
home, or travel abroad at his pleasure, and according to the 
taste of the moment. He will not let himself be tied down 
to a life of order and economy ; he loves change, the hazard, 
gambling, &c. 

The man of the people in Russia is wanting in foresight, 



40 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



his destructiveness makes him careless regarding property, 
and owing to his long serfdom lie lias not yet formed very 
just and precise notions on the right of property and the 
respect due to it. He lives but for the present moment and 
does not trouble himself about preparing a foundation to 
future and permanent benefits. 

He does his work with a sort of precipitation and momen- 
tary energy, excited in him only by the lively desire for the 
speediest enjoyment of the results of his efforts. 

He has no idea of thrifty management, for never having 
possessed anything but what really belonged to his master, 
his notions regarding the latter's property have always been 
rather hazy in kind. The requirements of his household he 
generally satisfied by helping himself freely to what the 
estate supplied, and economy was the last thing he ever 
troubled himself about. 

For evidence of this- improvidence in the Russian character? 
of the absence of all desire for the acquisition of property, 
and for the conservation of the same for his family, we need 
but look at the waste carried on in his splendid forests, the 
bad state of the roads and bridges, the defective agriculture, 
the neglect of cattle and sheep, &c. 

No improvement on this head can be expected to take 
place as long as the peasant has but a share in the revenue 
of the parish lands ; but once he will have his own ground to 
cultivate, to improve and preserve for his family, he will 
soon be forced to think about husbanding his resources, and 
learn to lay by in times of plenty for the seasons of drought 
and scarcity. 

The reproach of improbity frequently addressed to the 
Russian is unfortunately often deserved, and the result of 
former social circumstances. As long as the country people 
have no intercourse with the towns, they distinguish them- 
selves by a loyalty and honesty altogether unparalleled, 
especially in the northern provinces. There one may observe 
a quaint simplicity of customs that call to mind primitive 
times. These qualities are instinctive, and not acquired by 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



41 



reasoning : innate, and not developed ; transmitted, and not 
acquired. But it is precisely owing to this circumstance 
that they so often succumb to the outrage those primitive 
feelings experience when brought into contact with a corrupt 
world of towns and dense populations. It would, however, 
be a cruel error were one to apply that reproach of improbity 
to every class and to all the regions of the empire. 

In the parts inhabited by the simple landed proprietor, 
the unassuming merchant, and the peasant, the people will 
be found just as good, honest, straightforward, and trust- 
worthy as in any other part of Europe. Experience has 
proved to the writer of these pages that there is perhaps no 
country in the whole world, where one could travel for months 
unaccompanied, unarmed, through the densest forests, the 
solitary steppes and the wildest mountains in such perfect 
security as in Russia. 

Highway robbery and murder are crimes of which one 
hears very rarely, and if so, they are generally found to have 
been perpetrated by foreigners, for the real Russian is averse 
to violence and bloodshed, and incapable of /planning any 
iniquitous enterprise, though he might, on the spur of the 
moment, be induced to participate in it. 

Apart from the more or less corrupted serving class of the 
towns, the Russian will always be found to be a very good 
fellow, obliging and civil, gifted by easy and dignified 
manners, patient and prompt to help under difficulties, brave 
and steadfast in danger. The Russian's patience is such as 
one would look for in vain amongst any other nations, but it 
has its limits, and the author would not advise anybody to 
abuse it. Cowardice or puerile fears are not known to the 
Russian. A rigorous nervous system enables him to support 
physical evils and to exhibit an imperturbable calmness in the 
presence of the most imminent clanger. 

A certain fatalism and religious trust in the Almighty 
strengthen this equanimity and passive resignation, but, 
alas ! tend not less frequently to lead him into error. 

A little incident illustrative of this peculiarity of the 



42 



THE LAXD OF THE CZAR. 



Eussian came under the author's own observation. " The 
Kussian nurse we had in attendance on our children was most 
devotedly attached to the baby, and would, I firmly believe, 
at any moment have sacrificed her life for the little one. 
But when one bitter night in early January the latter had a 
severe attack of croup, she, frightened at the distressing 
symptoms, lost all hope, and considering it to be the will of 
God that the child should go to Heaven there and then, 
severely reproached us parents for endeavouring to save our 
baby, saying, ' God wishes to take the child to himself, and 
it is wicked trying to counteract his will ! ' " 

We thereupon took the child altogether into our special 
care, and after a few days had the pleasure of seeing her 
smile again in perfect health. Nobody felt greater delight 
than Njanja ; but when chaffed about her absurd notions she 
still would shake her head and mutter something about 
" Foreigner, and not of our religion," &c. 

A certain love of ease of body and mind makes the Eus- 
sian prefer the agency of his senses rather than that of his 
reason with respect to exterior impressions, and of the latter 
he again gives the preference to those that agitate his feel- 
ings than to such as directly appeal to his reason. 

He listens to news and narratives with keen avidity, but 
he does not in general like to reflect for a long time on 
serious subjects, or to be at the trouble of giving advice. 

However much he may be inclined to listen to friendly 
advice, the person wishing to gain any ascendancy over him 
must first make himself master of his way of seeing things 
in general. Talent and good intention do not suffice in such 
a case. It is quite an art, the knowing how to talk to the 
peasant. It would be the greatest mistake were one to 
assume that any silly talk or foolish lecture would at all 
affect the feelings of the common man, who may be compared 
to a sensible child holding fast to the traditions dear to its 
heart, to the sacred customs of its paternal hearth. No, one 
must come down to his level, if one would inspire him with 
that confidence so imperiously necessary to his becoming a 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



43 



believing and eager listener to the truths of science, in which 
one may feel anxious to initiate him, and which are of such 
eminent importance with respect to the progressing amelio- 
ration of his existence and condition. Wary prudence must 
be the guide on approaching the region of his ideas, of his 
beliefs, and even of his prejudices ; for there is his sanctuary, 
his most dearly-cherished treasure. 

When English machinery was first introduced into the 
agricultural districts of Kussia, the peasants would look 
in silent wonder upon the preparations preceding the 
start of a steam thrashing-machine for instance. But the 
moment the steam was let on, and the' machine began to 
move, to thrash the corn and bring it out readily fanned, 
sifted, and sorted, they often with one accord would break 
into an uncontrollable fit of merriment, throw themselves on 
the ground and roll about in a perfect agony of laughter at 
the ridiculous toys those English had brought into Holy 
Russia, in their audacious conceit trying to supersede the 
thrasher (ox), the plough, and fan of their fathers. At the 
angry call of the steward, however, they would jump up and 
begin to supply the machine, to remove the straw, fill and 
clear away the sacks and chaff, &c, and the English toy led 
them such a dance all day long as they never had experienced 
before. Reluctantly they began to admire the amount and 
quality of the work done, but they did not look upon the 
machine, that threatened to become a severe taskmaster, and, 
as an innovation, was a nuisance altogether, with any favour- 
able eye. 

On every estate is generally a moozhik, who being pos- 
sessed of some superior intelligence, is looked upon by all, 
(even including often his master), as a sort of factotum. It 
is very amusing to listen to these fellows' judgment of an 
engine, for instance, perhaps the first they have ever seen 
in their lives. The proprietor may be quite as ignorant of 
machinery as his man, and fearful of having to pay a large 
sum for a thing that, for all the engineer's promises, may 
after all turn out a useless tool, helplessly looks to his facto- 



44 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



turn, whom lie asks, " Well, Ivan, what do you think of it?" 
Not for an instant is Ivan at a loss about what he has to do 
or say. With the coolest confidence in the world, he walks 
rip to the engine, examines the parts he understands, viz., 
the wheels, the pole, the apparatus for greasing 1 the wheels, 
&c, and if satisfied on these points, pronounces his approving, 
" Khorosho ! " (Good). The rest of the engine is sure to be 
right, in his estimation, if only the pole and carriage-wheels 
are pvosti-Russki fashion. 

Such scenes I witnessed but six or seven years ago ; but 
since then civilization has advanced with such gigantic strides 
in Russia — a network of railways has been spread over the 
greater part of the empire in Europe, and agricultural and 
other machinery introduced into nearly every estate and 
town, that even the tenacity of Russian reminiscence has 
given way, and the Russian peasant cannot but begin to feel 
that his forefathers were not altogether infallible, and that 
in some degree he owes his freedom and many advantages he 
possesses, and which they knew nothing of, to the foreign 
appliances of mechanical force. 

The Russian has a very correct appreciation of all unfore- 
seen incidents, and knows how to profit by the same, if he 
would but take the trouble of giving them fair consideration. 
In a country where many things are still in an abnormal 
state, a man is obliged to look sharply about for chances, 
profit of the least circumstances, and utilize all that can lead 
to success. The Russian, therefore, noble, citizen, or pea- 
sant, knows how to adapt himself to all that may turn up, 
and to conduct himself adroitly in all positions of his life. 

Owing to his 2^enchant for sociability, the Russian's man- 
ners have that ease and flexibility, which enable him to move 
amongst his fellows with dignity and grace even in cases of the 
most opposite nature. There is nothing awkward, clumsy, or 
angular in his appearance, such as one observes so often in 
individuals belonging to other nations. He does not carry 
about with him for ever his particular interests, his private 
affections, his habits, scruples,^and his personalty ; he passes 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



45 



lightly and with "unconcern over all discomfort, he submits 
to whatever circumstances, and his presence rarely fails to 
impress the observer with a certain sense of roundness and 
completeness of manner. This constitutes the great charm 
of life in Russian society, which (perhaps excepting a frequent 
absence of higher interest) never fails to leave behind an 
agreeable impression and most pleasing recollection. The 
simplicity of heart and strongly-pronounced sentiment of 
humanity, which guide the Russian on all occasions, are the 
only motives that sustain him in the serious fulfilment of 
his duty, and which in business and everyday life often pre- 
vent him from acting up to the full requirements of the law. 
The same qualities serve considerably to sweeten the many 
abnormal circumstances attending all business transactions, 
but particularly so the social relations of his country. 

And withal the Russian never makes a parade of his 
philanthrophy or of his charitable kindness ; for they come 
natural to him, are matters of course ; they are conferred 
without ostentation, like a thing generally understood, for 
such is the bent of his heart, which derives the greatest 
pleasure from acting up to its generous impulses. He 
despises and pities the ungrateful, leaving him to the disci- 
pline of his own conscience with a magnanimous 61 Bog 
snim ! " (God be with him !) He considers the aggravation 
of the sufferings of misfortune a great sin, even in cases 
where they are merited : " Strike not a prostrate foe!" he 
says, and withholds not his helping hand from the unhappy, 
whatever may be the cause of his condition. 

To speak evil of the dead is most repugnant to the 
Russian character. " God is their judge ! " he thinks ; 
" leave them to rest in peace ! " 

If such was the character of the man of the people, while 
in the fetters of serfdom, what may one not expect from the 
free individual ? 

THE ARISTOCEACY. 

The social relations of the Russians amongst themselves, 
i.e., their classification according to rank or pursuit of in- 



46 



THE LAND OE THE CZAR. 



dustry, science, and art, differ considerably from those of the 
western world. 

Previous to the time of the Varaaghs, or Varangians, 
as some say, there existed no aristocracy in Russia. That 
people (Norse) were the first to introduce nobility amongst 
their new Sclavonic subjects. The Eussian nobility of that 
time formed an aristocracy of Office and State. They lived 
near the person of the Prince, whose behests they executed 
in times of peace as well as of war. A high Varasgh descent 
was always dearly valued by the Eussian nobles, and the 
Boyars were chosen but from persons of that quality. The 
root of the Eussian nobility may therefore be said to have 
sprung from Varsegh premises. The descent from Eurik 
was reputed then, as it is to this day, the highest and most 
illustrious degree of birth. 

When Moscow became the capital, the highest aristocracy 
underwent a considerable modification, by which their ascen- 
dancy and privileges were severely curtailed. 

The energetic Czars, Ivan III. and IV., anxious to pro- 
mote the civilization of their people by every means in their 
power, considered the paralyzation of high aristocratic influ- 
ences one of the most essential measures towards a speedy 
realization of their object. They did not think it worth 
while putting any pressure upon the lesser nobility. With- 
out adding to their importance at the expense of their supe- 
riors, they left them where they had been before, u e., 
they continued to hold their lands by hereditary grant from 
the Czar or the State direct, without acquiring a positive 
right of property to the same. In the course of time, how- 
ever, this nobility gradually assumed great ascendancy and 
prerogatives over the country people, or the free class of pea- 
sants, and that without on their part taking upon themselves 
any responsibility whatever towards that class. While thus 
virtually enjoying the fruits of the land and ruling the pea- 
sant with absolute power, they did not, however, acquire a 
legal right to the estates and to the liberty of the peasants 
till the end of the sixteenth century, when Peter the Great 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



!7 



officially confirmed the prerogatives they had usurped, and 
which have ever since continued to exist as their positive 
and le^al rm-ht. 

The Act of Emancipation of the Serfs has, of course, can- 
celled the above law, in as far as it aifected the personal 
liberty of the peasant. 

A general competition to every branch whatever of the 
government service being admitted on principle, Peter I. 
instituted the " Tchin," with its fourteen classes of hierarchic 
rank for the military and civil service, without which nobility 
could not exist, and under certain circumstances was even 
annulled. In consequence of this law, many joersons outside 
the circle of nobility could acquire the latter by serving the 
State. This hierarchy, or order of nobility, according to 
class and rank, and which to this day is the only nobility 
legally recognized by the Law of Special Prerogatives, 
destroyed, so to say, the individuality of hereditary and 
landowning nobility, and the existence of a distinct caste by 
moral ascendancy, such as it more or less possesses in other 
countries. 

At first the nobility acquired within the ranks of the four- 
teen classes was by law considered hereditary but this clause 
has since been subjected to clivers restrictions. 

The absence of the law of primogeniture, or, at least, of 
compulsory entail of property, and the generally negligent 
management of the landed estates, could not fail to render 
the condition of the peasant a truly deplorable one. Owing 
to the former circumstance, the property, including the serfs, 
frequently changed hands, and the habit on the part of the 
lords of the manor of residing in the larger cities in most cases 
left the unfortunate serf entirely at the mercy of the stewards, 
too often men of doubtful principles and rude education. 

The material advantages acquired by the aristocracy in 
consequence of these grants of landed estates and peasants 
were immense. A great number of foreigners, Germans, 
French, Poles, Tartars, Greeks, &c, became enrolled at that 
period in the ranks of nobility ; and some of the princely 



48 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



houses of world-wide renown date their titles from the time 
of Peter the Great, or even from later periods. 

The rules of the " tchin " exhibit a considerable preference 
as regards the military rank. Thus the rank of Colonel (6th 
class) still entitles its possessor to hereditary nobility, while 
in the Civil Service this right ceases with the Councillor of 
State (Statskij Soyjetnik), a noble of the 4th class. 

Officer and official from the 14th to the 9th class of 
the tchin are addressed as, " Wellborn " (Blagorodie) ; from 
the 8th to the 6th class to, " Yery Noble " (Vissokobla- 
gorodie) ; in the Civil Service the 5th class (a rank not any 
longer existing in the Military) is entitled to, " Very High- 
born" (Vissokorodie) ; the 4th and 3rd classes to, " Excel- 
lency " (Prevoskkoditelstvo) ; and the 2nd and 1st classes 
finally to, " Yery Excellent " (Yissokoprevoskhoditelstvo). 

The nobility live generally at St. Petersburg, Moscow, in 
other large cities, or abroad, paying little attention to their 
vast estates ; only the proprietor of comparatively small 
landed property remains at home superintending the manage- 
ment of his lands in person. 

Owing to the above-mentioned indifference on the part of 
the great noble, agriculture is, as yet, in a very backward 
condition. 

That there are some highly praiseworthy exemptions from 
this rule I need not say, and what between the emancipation 
of the serfs, the establishment of railways, and other means 
of travel and transport, a rapid improvement in this respect 
cannot fail before long to elevate Russian agriculture to the 
level attained in Western Europe. 

Although the traits of Russian character, as delineated in 
the preceding pages, may be traced also to the character of 
the aristocratic representative of the nation, the latter is, 
nevertheless, distinguished by other qualities worthy of re- 
mark. 

Sociability, charitableness, hospitality, are the virtues 
in which the Russian noble decidedly excels. To these may 
be added a certain affability of manner manifesting itself 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



49 



often on the slightest provocation by an exhibition of 
spontaneous and unconscious sympathy. Though it may be 
true, that the money quickly gained is just as freely spent, 
and that the possession of great material wealth renders the 
exercise of hospitality a matter of small account, it is, for all 
that, but just to say, that the application of this invidious 
argument to Russian hospitality and its motives can be at 
once refuted by the fact that the same amiable qualities 
shine just as brightly in the presence of modest fortunes, 
gained probably by the sweat of the brow. 

What elsewhere is called " Public Life" is a thing little 
known in Russia. Consequently the house, the family there, 
are of first importance. The strength of family ties with the 
Russians is all the more conspicuous, as that quality threatens 
to become extremely scarce in the case of Western European 
society, particularly in Germany, where people are visibly 
inconvenienced by private visits of any duration, and that 
even in cases where the visitors are near relations. 

While in Russia visitors are welcomed with a joy as sincere 
as touching — in Germany they meet never without a certain 
formality. Instead of giving him his welcome to homely 
pot-luck, the German host conducts his visitor to the table 
d'hote of a restaurant ; and, if he is admitted at all to the 
family mahogany, every care will be taken to conceal the 
daily and intimate family habits. The prayer before and 
after dinner is omitted, the children excluded from the 
society of the elders, poor Spitz and Puss driven from their 
corner — in short, everything tends to prove, that one is 
a shamed, instead of being proud, of the family customs. 

In Russia the case is precisely the reverse. The whole 
family, even the domestics, are gratified by the presence of 
visitors. All endeavour to make them feel at home ; and, 
without causing any change in the ordinary routine of the 
house, they are made to perceive by thousand little attentions 
that they are welcome, and could not better repay the kind- 
ness shown them than by a speedy repetition of their visit. 
One must witness the thrill of joy vibrating through every 

E 



50 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



nerve of the household at the near prospect of visitors, in 
order to conceive an idea of the hospitable sentiment of the 
Eussian. With a peculiar sound of satisfaction they say to 
each other : 66 Sevodnja gosti boodut ! " (There will be 
visitors to-day.) 

The opulent Russian of noble descent (even when gratifying 
his " penchant " for ostentation) does not lock himself up in 
his house for the selfish enjoyment of his riches — no, he 
loves — and that is the true test of innate generosity of soul — 
he loves to see as long a row of guests as possible sitting in 
merry enjoyment at his well-furnished table. 

Still more meritorious is his spirit of true Christian 
humanity, which has covered his country with innumerable 
charitable establishments. The Russian in the splendour 
of Court dress, in the most brilliant uniform, the bearded 
citizen in his long kaftan, the great and noble landowner, 
the simple farmer, the opulent Muskovite merchant, all vie 
with each other in fervent zeal to increase the number of 
most magnificent refuges for the poor, the aged, and the 
infirm. 

And the spirit of charity is so generally pervading all 
classes, that there is scarcely a single village which does not 
possess its hospital or other charitable institution. 

The high society of St. Petersburg, it is a well-known fact, 
may rank, as regards manners and distinguished form, 
with the very best in Western Europe. Unfortunately a 
taste for splendid appearance and the passion for a luxurious 
style of living are sometimes, perhaps, carried too far by the 
civilized classes of Russian society, and is a remnant of 
ancient habits combined to a certain foibleness of character 
and vanity. 

The Russian is often prone to prodigality and to living 
above his means, in most cases for the sole object of shining 
and of keeping up with his acquaintances. 

Everything is sacrificed to the moment, and an hour passed 
in pleasurable excitement is never considered too dearly paid 
for. The result is a repugnance to serious business and the 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



51 



tedious performance of a difficult duty. Floating amidst a 
thousand different interests, the Russian is alternately in- 
dulgent and pretentious, indifferent and zealous, undecided 
and vacillating, or determined and resolved. 

The civilized Russian is highly intelligent, and of quick 
comprehension, but interested only by fits and starts ; he 
likes change and variety, and blindly submits to the caprices 
of fashion. 

A serious evil is the injudicious education of their children, 
who are more frequently spoilt than educated. Parents 
prefer to make of them amusing playthings for the gratifica- 
tion of their own vanity, to seeing them properly guided and 
instructed, and brought up in a way calculated to insure their 
growing up into useful, serious men, of an independent and 
firm character. The extravagant tenderness and foolish 
fondness lavished upon them at an early age, the indulgence 
and weakness with which their faults are passed over, cannot 
but exert a most pernicious influence on the infantine mind. 
Too early emancipated, they submit to a wholesome discipline 
with a very bad grace. They are presumptuous, and pay but 
little respect to age and experience. Considering, moreover, 
the want of athletic exercise, joined to an overstrain on the 
nervous system, one cannot wonder at the present generation 
falling short of the fine Russian type, which earlier accounts 
and one's own imagination may have led one to expect. 

The family life of the Russian most distinctly reflects his 
character, his bent of mind, and the effect of the historical, 
political, and social influences of the past and of the present, 
which have been instrumental in the forming of the same. 

The Russian begins and ends the day by prayer. The 
daily ablutions of the lower classes take up but little time and 
trouble. The baths (probably of Finnish origin) are invalu- 
able in a sanitary respect ; applied, however, in excess, they 
are apt to produce a relaxation of the pores and the falling 
off of the hair at a premature age. Even the lower classes 
make use of them at least once a week. 

The father or master of the household takes upon himself 



52 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



the smallest share of its duties ; he presides over the arrange- 
ment of the whole, and goes in his own, or in the person of 
other members of his family, in search of outdoor work. 
The greatest share of the household work, and the hardest, is 
thrown on the women, whose patient submission, in the 
presence of the comparative indolence of the men, remind 
one but too vividly of early Oriental customs. 

The peasant's diet is of the most frugal description. His 
food is not substantial, but he eats much and often. The 
diet of the town is far more generous than that of the country. 

All Eussians, even the highly civilized, sleep much and 
soundly. It would indeed be difficult to find a people who 
required and enjoyed so much sleep as they do. A nap 
after meals is indispensable to them. People in easy cir- 
cumstances, particularly the women, sleep long in the morn- 
ing ; hence pernicious results to the household, to the proper 
training of the children, &c. Order, proper surveillance, 
and regularity, under such circumstances, are next to impos- 
sible. 

The table manners of the middle and lower classes are 
deplorably deficient in grace and decency, although in good 
society they resemble those of other countries. But fre- 
quently in the most luxurious households the visitor may at 
a glance detect a certain want of order, the absence of the 
indefatigable hand, of the vigilant eye, belonging to the lady 
of the house, whose influence, however invisible, must some- 
how or other pervade the very air of the establishment. 

If the female of the working class labour too much, that 
of the higher does too little. Amongst the former much of 
the work by rights belonging to the men is laid on her 
shoulder; amongst the latter the men generally attend to 
many things which ought to form the exclusive business of 
their wives. A false and unnatural state of things is the 
result of this irregular and unfair distribution of duties — 
one is ill at ease and weary for want of suitable occupation. 

While the woman of the people appears oppressed, that 
of the higher classes is too emancipated. She evidently 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



53 



attaches more importance to passing enjoyments, to re- 
ceptions, visits, balls, &c, than to the duties which ought 
to constitute the glory and happiness of womanhood. 
Brought up solely to shine in society, the Kussian lady is 
distinguished by remarkably smooth and amiable manners. 
Her society is therefore much sought after and courted. They 
are generally most kindhearted, hospitable, and active in 
the promotion of charitable deeds and institutions. 

The Russian lady frequently discovers intellectual faculties 
and a certain amount of sound sense, which put the same 
qualities, perceptible in the conversation and manners of their 
lords, decidedly into the shade, as the latter are rarely 
moving in that respect on the same level with their spouses. 

Since Peter the Great the Russian woman's lot has un- 
dergone a great change for the better, and she has been 
raised to a far more dignified position than she had held 
anterior to that monarch's reign. 

The sociable character of the Russian offers the greatest 
charm to the sojourn of the foreign visitor. Although 
society there may be said to afford perhaps too much in the 
way of material enjoyment, and that it is to a certain extent 
wanting in variety of distractions, yet it is always pervaded 
by a certain affectionate warmth and frankness, which go 
far to prove the innate love of the Russian of living in con- 
stant contact with his neighbours, and his aversion to an 
isolated existence amidst the objects of luxury and art 
which crowd his brilliant mansion. The Russian of all 
classes loves society for its own sake, as well as for the oppor- 
tunity it affords him for ostentatious display. He measures 
the charm of society by the number, position, and quantity 
of his guests ; and the pleasure he experiences depends as 
much on the degree of attention towards himself a visit is 
considered to imply, as on the gratification of his hospitable 
feelings. This is the reason of the extraordinary importance 
attaching to visits in Russia, and that one is nowhere re- 
ceived with so much grace and amiability. 

In the larger cities good society is often imitated in a 



54 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



more or less burlesque manner by a certain bourgeoisie, by 
upstart tradespeople, clerks, and others, when a magnificent 
toilet, a vulgarly stiff manner, French dances, and other 
means are resorted to, in order to impress the visitor with 
the appearance at least of " bon ton " and of superior edu- 
cation. Families living in retirement and modest simplicity 
are looked down upon by those people with ignoring con- 
tempt and disdain. 

All Russians have a decided dislike for walking exercise, 
which sometimes manifests itself in a highly ludicrous 
manner. I remember well the astonished look of a gentle- 
man, at whose country place I happened to be staying a few 
years ago, on my proposing a walk to the top of a small hill, 
situated at a distance of about a quarter of a mile from the 
house. " What, you mean to say you want to walk up that 
hill ? I will have a droshki ready in a moment." When I 
persisted in my resolution to walk, he shook his head in 
absolute bewilderment, and evidently put me down in his 
own mind for a most bizarre character. Perceiving his 
reluctance I did not venture to repeat my request for his 
company and started alone. On my return I was greeted by 
the whole family with astonished questions about my heroic 
exploit, so as to make me almost fancy myself a second 
Tannhauser returning from the Yenusberg of the popular 
German fairy tale. 

It is probably owing to this want of proper walking 
exercise added to the superheated houses, that the Eussians 
are far more sensible of the cold winter air than most 
foreigners. 

The amusements of the Eussian people are generally of a 
very simple character, and in accordance with their peace- 
able disposition. The towns have their public promenades, 
theatres, music-halls, balls, and their religious festivals. 
Some of the latter are evidently of a very ancient date ; so, 
for instance, the feast of the " semik " (from " sem" — seven), 
which is celebrated on the seventh Thursday after Easter, 
and which once probably was held in honour of the Deity 



GREAT-RUSSIANS. 



55 



" Tora." On that clay the marriageable young girls of 
ancient times used to go into the dense forests consecrated to 
the goddess, singing songs analogous to the circumstances, 
and performing dances, holding in their hands green branches 
ornamented by many-coloured ribbons. When the dance 
was over, the branches were flung into the water ; if they 
sank it was considered a sign that the young aspirant to 
matrimony would not get married that year. Up to the 
present time a similar custom may be observed on Pentecost 
Monday. On that day the young girls may be seen to run 
through the streets singing and dancing and agitating in 
their hands branches of green holly. 

A very gay season is the " Sviatki," which last from 
Christmas to Twelfth night. During those days the streets 
resound with songs of joy, and people meet in the houses to 
sing, dance, and masquerade. The masks go from house to 
house, often most singularly representing scenes recalling 
historical reminiscences, a performance particularly grateful 
to Russian taste. 

The village feasts, Le. those of its patron Saint or Church, 
last for several days, and are celebrated in great gaiety, 
especially if they happen to fall due during the fine season. 

The ladies then vie with each other in the exhibition of 
the most luxurious toilet. These festivals partake, all more 
or less, of a patriarchal and exceedingly pleasing character, 
and are distinguished by the entire absence of riotous scenes. 
The young girls, dressed in their best, and ornamented with 
flowers, and ranged according to age, walk through the 
streets singing songs, which generally refer to objects and 
ideas of the greatest simplicity. They are at times shrill, 
at others languishing and melancholy. 

The men also group together according to age. The whole 
village at last assemble on some big square or common, 
where it is soon joined by a mighty concourse of visitors 
from the surrounding villages. There are swings, and 
ornamented tents with every kind of eatables, particularly 
gingerbread and nuts. 



56 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Music (the indispensable accompaniment of all festivities) 
is supplied by the " balalaika" (a kind of guitar of three 
strings, and a truly national instrument), the accordian, by 
the "goolok" or "goossli" (a horizontal harp), by the 
u doodka " (a primitive flute), by the " yele'ika," " sepovka," 
and "sopel" (horns), and by the " svirel," or reed whistle. 
All these instruments seem to be of Greek origin. When 
singing, the lads and lasses form separate circles under a 
special leader, who from time to time yields up his place to 
another " zapievals." This song is very monotonous, and 
often interrupted by original dances performed by the men. 
As regards the dance, a circle is formed, within which a 
man and woman execute the " trepak," a national dance 
also called the "prissadka" and u kazatshka." This is a 
true Eussian dance, though somewhat partaking of an 
Asiatic character; and the Eussian gives himself up to it 
solely for the love of the dance itself, and without any con- 
sideration for his partner. It is probably of Tartar or gipsy 
origin, and not without glimpses of a poetical nature. It 
commences with a certain measure and movement calcu- 
lated to show off the symmetrical beauty of the forms, and 
accompanied by an impassionate mimic, implying caresses 
and entreaties by the men rejected by the women. The 
performance ends by a face-to-face dance (probably borrowed 
from the Cossacks) of a very rapid measure, great vivacity 
of movement, and accompanied by genuflexions and sharply 
accentuated gestures. 

The lady's steps are short and rapid ; she holds her arms 
extended, and a handkerchief in her hands. In this posture 
she executes all sorts of undulating and graceful figures. 
The dance is accompanied by an instrument ornamented with 
bells and bright ribbons. This is called " lojki," on account 
of its resemblance to a bunch of spoons. The man holds 
one of these instruments in each hand, where they serve to 
give relief to his movements, just as the handkerchief does 
to those of the women. 

In some parts of the country another kind of dance is in 



GREAT -RUSSIANS. 



57 



use, called " tchijick." The gentlemen preserve a ludicrously 
impassive countenance. Dressed in their long kaftans, their 
heads covered, and the hands in the pockets, they dance in a 
circle before the ladies, who follow them all the time sing- 
ing. On certain accords of the music being struck, the 
gentlemen at once turn round, take off their caps, make a 
little bow, and kiss their partners with a tranquillity of soul 
and countenance almost incredible. The towns know, of 
course, only French dances. 

As already said, nothing approaching riotous conduct is 
ever witnessed on festival occasions, but also no true gaiety. 
On great holidays all the world and his wife will turn out to 
walk up and down the boulevards or promenade, when 
people pass and re-pass each other with almost silent 
indifference. A foreign visitor, struck by this want of 
animation, once put the following characteristic question to 
a person near him : " For what great personage's funeral 
are all these people assembled?" 

The lower classes enliven their long winter evenings by 
sundry amusements and games. In the case of the civilized 
part of the nation, all games have made room for the cards. 
These have become the object not only of amusement, but 
of veritable passion, often strongly developed in the young 
men, who seem to know no other pleasure besides, except 
that of smoking papiros or cigarettes. 

The quantity of cards annually transported by the St. 
Petersburg-Moscow Railway alone (110 tons) will furnish 
the best illustration of the strength of this habit. 

The essential stimulus to a genial flow of the animal 
spirits, viz. bodily exercise, is wanting to all Russian 
amusements, pastimes, and games ; and with it the neces- 
sary counterpoise to the tendencies of effeminate degene- 
ration, so often the result of a too refined civilization. 

The principal and almost only sport of the Russian 
gentleman consists in driving at the highest possible speed. 
In order to excel in this, he pays enormous prices for fast- 
trotting horses, and puts up with the most wretched con- 



58 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



veyance, provided it is whirled along the ground at a 
break-neck pace. Few Eussians know anything about 
hunting, shooting, swimming, boating, gymnastic and other 
exercises requiring strength and agility. For such they 
have neither taste nor the necessary elasticity of mind and 
muscle. 



CHAPTEE IV, 



THE RUSSIAN OF THE MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS AND THE WORKMAN. 

Manufacturing industry in Russia is every year assuming 
a wider range, without thereby seriously and unfavourably 
affecting the commercial relations with foreign countries, 
The latter may now and then be subjected to certain modi- 
fications, without, however, suffering any diminution in the 
sum total, 

The principal manufacturing districts of Russia are the 
Governments of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Vladimir, and 
Perm, of which the last, however, is exclusively confined to 
metallurgical industry. 

The value of produce of Moscow is double that of Perm, 
but only about two-thirds that of the Government of St. 
Petersburg. 

Second in rank as regards industry, are the districts 
of Orel, Kostroma, Tambov, Rjazan, Kalooga, Neezhnei- 
Novgorod, Simbirsk, Kursk, Samara, Tver, Orenburg, and 
Voronezh ; and, lastly, Tula, Vjatka, Saratov, Pensa, Kazan, 
Pskov, Yarosslav, Novgorod, Smolensk, and Kherson. 

The villages surrounding the large manufacturing towns 
are exclusively occupied by the town establishments, The 
masters supply the material, which the young girls bring 
back in a manufactured state. Whole villages and large 
rural districts owe their livelihood to one and the same 
trade. 

In most of the districts the workmen are always fully occu- 
pied, yet such is the love of change ingrained in the Russian 



GO 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR, 



character, the men seldom remain long in the same place. 
While to a foreign workman this change of locality would be 
a matter of indifference on account of the sameness of natural 
conditions, for the Russian the change and with it fresh 
food for his jocund spirits is a matter of absolute necessity. 

He gives preference to places where great numbers are 
employed, however hard he may have to work, and he never 
considers the loss in substance these continual changes must 
cause him. This is the reason of the often very original 
diversity in the occupation of the Russian workman. They 
vary with the season and chances. 

The Russian is fond of new society, for it promises him 
fresh tales and new songs, without which he cannot exist 
either during his hours of work or leisure. 

In the government of Moscow the weavers are altogether 
in the power of the master, and therefore often exposed to 
considerable hardships. The price of the goods is seldom 
fixed beforehand, for the peasant, afraid of being left without 
work during the long winter time, is obliged to consent to 
the conditions, which the master may think fit to impose on 
him, and of which the most trying is that which defers the 
payment for the work done to a period subsequent to the sale 
of the goods. 

The shoe trade of Vladimir is carried on under very similar 
circumstances. 

The inhabitants of that province generally spend the 
summer in the towns, where they work in the capacity of 
waiters, masons, carpenters, &c. Owing to their gay soci- 
ability they frequently manage to spend the greatest part of 
their earnings before they get back again to their homes. In 
winter they return to their shoemaker's benches, and that 
they might not be tempted to sell the shoes elsewhere, the 
master gives them but one kind of boot (either right or left) 
to make according to a particular pattern. 

The industry of the rural districts is pervaded in a striking 
manner by a certain spirit of association. Every enterprise 
is carried out ordinarily by " Artels," or associations of work- 



MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS. 



01 



men, who. work independently in small or large gangs, or 
under a contractor (podrjadtchik). In that case they fix the 
wage beforehand, as well as the duration of their work, and 
choose from among their number a delegate or " artelshtchik," 
who is charged with the economical affairs of the artel. For 
the defrayal of the necessary expenses they remit to him 
every week a part (equal for each) of their earnings, and at 
the end of the season they return to their villages with the 
surplus saved. These artels are most excellent institutions. 
They frequently guarantee for the integrity, sobriety, and 
good behaviour of their members, so that bankers are in the 
habit of employing the latter as bill-collectors. In that 
capacity they sometimes handle enormous sums of money, 
which to an ordinary clerk might perhaps prove a strong 
temptation, but may be confided with impunity to the hands 
of an artel member. 

A similar system is being followed s by the " Burlaks," 
whose business consists in the towing of boats on the Volga. 
Their regulations are exceedingly severe. The lazy or ill- 
behaved amongst them is in the first instance soundly flogged 
by his own comrades, and if that punishment avail not, ex- 
pelled the " artel." 

Trade and industry, of course, flourish best where the 
peculiar condition of locality comes to their aid. The 
inhabitants of the RostofT district, for instance, in the govern- 
ment of Yarosslav, where good arable land is comparatively 
scant, occupy themselves almost exclusively with market 
gardening. Those of the Danilovsky district take service in 
the hotels and restaurants of the towns. In the borough of 
Yelikoe, of the same government, linen goods are largely being 
manufactured, but the importance of this branch of industry 
has greatly diminished since the introduction of cotton mills. 
At Romanov-Borissoglebsk one meets only with forges, while 
the opposite banks of the Yolga are entirely monopolised by 
tanneries. 

In Yologda all the world is carpenter or "plotnik," as 
also in the forest lands of the north-eastern districts. These 



62 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 

carpenters, who work in wood in every possible fashion, 
manufacture with their hatchets alone, and without hardly 
ever using their saws, the most delicate articles as well as 
the rudest. Their ability and cunning workmanship are 
qualities not to be met with in any foreign carpenter, and 
must excite the admiration of all beholders. 

During the summer they travel over Russia. 

In some parts, as for instance in Vologda, the peasants 
occupy themselves exclusively with agriculture ; in the dis- 
trict of Kadnikovsk with the manufacture of felt boots 
(valiki) of excellent quality. 

Ship-building is mostly confined to the district of Arch- 
angel. The barges of Kostroma are in high repute. 

The forest districts produce bark, charcoal and tar, mats, 
sacks, &c. 

Kazan is celebrated for its leather. In the neighbourhood 
of Susdal (Vladimir) the manufacture of pictures of saints 
occupies several villages. This government furnishes, more- 
over, many masons and stone-cutters. 

At Torjok (Tver) the embroideries in gold and silver on 
morocco leather are justly renowned for quality and quantity. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE RUSSIANS OF SIBERIA. 

The colossal territory of Siberia throughout its whole ex- 
tent bears witness to the former existence of a far more 
numerous population. Innumerable tumulous mounds, in- 
scriptions on the rocks of the banks of the Lena, and ruins 
of ancient towns and fortresses are disseminated over the 
county in every direction. The greater part of those vestiges 
of an anterior civilization doubtless owe their existence to 
primitive peoples, of whom history keeps no record, but who 
had evidently attained to a certain degree of development. 
For throughout the whole of Siberia, especially where the 
mountains have been recently explored, one meets constantly 
with traces of an anterior culture, which had disappeared 
ages ago. 

The conquest of Siberia once achieved, the Russians were 
not slow in invading the most remote parts of that country. 
Some were animated by their love of gain (Promychlenniks), 
i.e. adventurers of industry of every kind, particularly trap- 
pers and furriers ; some by their love of adventure in an 
abstract sense of the word, like the Cossacks ; some from 
fear of a merited chastisement (criminals real or suspected) ; 
others at last for religious reasons, as for instance, the "Ras- 
kolniks " (dissenters). 

In consequence of this influx of Russian elements the indi- 
genous races generally receded before the advancing step of 
the invaders, and from certain provinces have disappeared 
altogether. Only in places where agriculture and permanent 



64 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



settlements are beginning to develop themselves, may be ob- 
served an increase of population proportionate to the pro- 
gressing improvement of the moral and material condition of 
the country. This fact is verified in the most striking 
manner by the case of the Burjates, Yakoots, and recently 
also by that of the Kirghiz-Kaissaks. 

Christianity, and the cultivation of the land and firm 
maintenance of a strict law of property, cannot fail to pro- 
duce a gradual transformation of the primitive conditions of 
existence in Siberia, and Russia in particular seems destined 
for the accomplishment of that task. 

The river Yennissei divides Siberia into two parts, of which 
the western half is the one principally inhabited by the Rus- 
sians. This country is generally flat, only to the south of 
the Tomsk Government mountains may be seen stretching as 
far as the glacial regions. 

The Ural, on account of its gradually sloping nature, can 
hardly be considered a proper line of demarcation ; but the 
produce of the soil, the nationality, languages, and customs 
of the inhabitants of Perm decidedly partake already of an 
Asiatic character. 

Eastern Siberia — i.e. the governments of Yenisseisk, of 
Irkutsk, and the provinces of Zabaikalsk, Yakutsk, Amoorsk, 
and Primorsk — is generally considered to form the veritable 
Siberia proper. The number of the Russian inhabitants of 
this part of Siberia, of this land of terror and suffering, does 
not equal one-half of the native tribes. 

Amongst the 4,550,000 inhabitants of Siberia, including 
the Kirghiz-Kaissaks and the Kirghiz proper, there are about 
2,350,000 Russians, of which perhaps 200,000 are Cossacks. 
The inhabitants of the Siberian towns are almost exclusively 
Russian. 

The trade of Siberia consists of a kind of exchange busi- 
ness, where Russian manufactured goods are bartered for 
cattle, fish, furs, &c. The Russian merchants have, how- 
ever, to sustain an energetic competition on the part of Tartar 
and Bookharah merchants. Troitskossavsk, near Kiakhta, 



THE RUSSIANS OF SIBERIA. 



05 



the central point of Siberian commerce, is situated close to 
the Chinese frontier and to the great Chinese trading town 
of Maimai-tching. The quantity of goods (such as tea and 
others) annually imported into Russia by way of Kiakhta 
amounts to about three million pounds sterling. 

The civilized class of Siberia is composed almost exclu- 
sively of civil and military officers. There is hardly any 
bourgeoisie in the towns. Life amongst the above-mentioned 
society consists of a perfect round of pleasure, enhanced by 
the exhilarating influence of the beautiful South- Siberian 
climate and of the splendour of a gigantic Nature. Under 
those circumstances heart and mind expand and rise above 
the narrow-minded prose of European life even amongst 
more or less intimate connections. The name " Siberia," 
so startling to European ears, produces an electric effect on 
whosoever has lived in that country, as it is sure to recall 
sweet reminiscences. The lower class as well as the higher 
both possess, more or less, the good qualities of the Russian 
character without so many of its usual faults. The good 
society of Irkutsk has all the refined manners and the bon 
ton of Western Europe. 

The interior of the houses is more comfortable, Parisian 
fashion more brilliantly represented, and the champagne 
sparkles there in greater profusion and better quality than 
in many a fashionable saloon of the most important Euro- 
pean cities. 

While in Europe people think twice before they start on a 
visit of a few miles distance, a ball in Siberia sometimes 
brings together people from distances of 80 to 100 and more 
miles, across rivers, hills, precipices, and over roads and 
bridges which would terrify a European brought up in the 
luxuries of a refined civilization. 

The Siberian Russians are of middle size, but strongly 
built. In the northern parts the Russian type is the predo- 
minant; the people are fair and have blue eyes. In the 
south the admixture of Asiatic blood may be traced in the 
black hair, the small and dark eyes ? and the projecting 



66 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



cheek-bones. The voice of the Siberian Eussian is stronger 
and deeper than that of his European countryman. His 
character is more animated and passionate, and his gestures 
are more lively and energetic. He is a bold backwoodsman, 
and habitually carries arms ; even while ploughing his field 
he wears his gun slung on his back. 

The women are not handsome ; but strongly constituted 
and industrious. The wife not only directs the household, 
but she also tends the fields, sows, reaps, prepares the flax, 
and makes the clothes, while the husband is away to earn 
money by carting merchandise. They live according to 
ancient customs, and display (especially as regards furs) an 
incredible luxury. 

Although the greatest part of the population has sprung 
from criminals, their habits are pure and simple, and their 
general probity is such as to render locks for the doors a 
matter of superfluity. 

The long speeches and profusion of words of which the 
European Russian is so prodigal, are unknown to the Siberian, 
whose promises are all based on his word, which to him is 
sacred. 

A singularly beautiful and strong race of men, repre- 
senting the true Russo- Siberian type, inhabit the districts of 
Tara and Kamsk, in the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk, 
and particularly the Baraba (incorrectly called the Bara- 
binde Steppe). These are the descendants of Russian emi- 
grants. Honest, adroit, rich, free and easy in their manner, 
dignified, and of a proud and imposing bearing (the result of 
conscious strength and personal independence) they even 
object to be called Russians or anything but Siberians. 
Many of them are severe sectarians. Fanaticism has been 
known to have driven many of them into voluntary mar- 
tyrdom by fire and other means. 

The Siberian- Russian is very superstitious, but not without 
a strong element of poetry. Folk lore, fables, and legends 
are rife there. 

The Siberian generally speaks with a peculiar twang 



THE RUSSIANS OF SIBERIA. 



67 



resembling a chaunt. Their grammar is not logically correct 
and regulated, and the pronunciation of the words pecu- 
liarly deviates from the original. Throughout the province 
of Yakoutsk the Yakout language is being used by every- 
body. In north-eastern Siberia the Koriako-Tchuktche is 
spoken, and in Kamtchatka again they make use of a sort of 
mixed dialect, composed of the Russian and divers other 
tongues belonging to the indigenous population. The word 
" Kamtchatka" is derived from " Kontchatj," to terminate, 
and is a name appropriate to the geographical position of the 
province. 



F 2 



CHAPTEE VI. 



THE RUSSIANS OF LITTLE-RUSSIA (MALOROSSIANI). 

They are after the Eussians of Great-Russia the most 
numerous tribe of the empire. During several centuries 
Little-Russia formed the political, religious, and intellectual 
centre of the country. It was the cradle of the Cossack 
system. Its peoples number 11,800,000 souls, and inhabit 
the governments of Kiev (1,640,000), of Volhynia (1,120,000), 
of Podolia (1,250,000), of Yekaterinoslav (880,000), of Vo- 
ronezh (600,000), of Kursk (300,000), of Tauride (200,000), 
ofBessarabia(150,000),ofOrel(150,000),of Saratov (50,000), 
of Samara (50,000), in the country of the Cossacks of the 
Don (80,000), and at last in the government of Mohilev 
(40,000). There are moreover 215,000 Little - Russians 
inhabiting the kingdom of Poland. 

The national centre of the Little-Russians are the govern- 
ments of Poltava, Tchernigov, and the parts contiguous to 
Kiev, whence, since the end of last century, they have 
extended as far as the steppes of Yekaterinoslav and Kherson, 
and partly even to more northern districts. The purest 
type attaches to the inhabitants of Poltava and Tchernigov. 

As regards the intellectual condition and character of the 
Malorossiani, they differ considerably from the corresponding 
qualities as observed in the case of the Great- Russians. 
Amongst the latter may be observed a certain uniformity in 
the distribution of mental gifts, but with the Malorossiani 
the case is just the reverse, inasmuch as one meets amongst 
them people of extraordinary mental endowments by the side 



THE RUSSIANS OF LITTLE-RUSSIA. 



GO 



of the dullest and incurable imbeciles. Intellectual strength 
and weakness, wealth and poverty of mind, are brought into 
frequent collision, producing thereby inevitable shocks. No 
other Slavonic tribe knows how to lay hold of or pounce 
upon the weak or ludicrous points in the character of their 
neighbours, and to use them with greater poignancy than 
the Little-Russian. 

All the sarcasms, which the Russian so liberally bestows on 
the simplicity of the " Khakhol " (Little-Russian), on his 
want of address and his capricious humour, are but feeble 
imitations of the quick witticisms and gibes which the Malo- 
rossiani themselves are in the habit of aiming at each other. 
Caustic humour with them is a common gift ; it accompanies 
them into all situations of life, and its effect is greatly 
enhanced by the laconic dry manner in which they give 
expression to it. 

The Malorossian is generally suspected of being in an 
excessive degree addicted to intemperance. This is, how- 
ever, not strictly just. It is true he drinks often and much, 
but rarely in excess of a prudent measure. While the real 
Russian from time to time abstains for a few days, but only 
that he may make up for it at other times by excessive 
indulgence, the Malorossian drinks regularly every day, but 
without ever making a beast of himself. 

The price of spirits in their country being lower than in 
any other part of Russia, the temptation is of course propor- 
tionately stronger, and the moderate habits of the Little- 
Russian therefore all the more meritorious. 

Theft is a scarce crime in Little-Russia, and their language 
has not even a name for that vice. They call a thief simply 
a malefactor. Favoured by a more genial climate the Malo- 
rossian generally lives more generously than the Russian, and 
cannot do without at least one hot meal per diem. Less 
scrupulous than the Russian in the observance of the exterior 
forms and rites of the Church, the Malorossian has never 
shown any predilection for sectarianism, and up to the present 
day not one single dissenter (raskolnik) is found amongst 



70 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



them. The constant oppression and religious persecution on 
the part of the Poles produced no effect whatever on the 
Little-Russians, i.e. on the inhabitants of the left banks of 
the Dnjeper ; for this people, which had always fought for 
its faith, so as to prefer the wild life of outlaws in the steppes 
to an easy existence held out to conversion, has ever remained 
strictly faithful to its religion. 

The poetical, dreamy nature of the Little-Russian believes 
still in elementary spirits and all sorts of demons. He has 
inherited this superstition from his Pagan ancestors. He 
thoroughly believes in the power of an evil spirit, who tries to 
possess Man from the very day of his birth. The peasant's 
anxiety for the earliest baptism of his new-born child is based 
on the fear of its being turned (if a girl) into a water- 
witch, or "russalka" (from russlo — brook), and (if a boy) 
into a faun, forest sprite or " leshy " (from less — wood, forest). 
The leshys and russalkas are not distinguishable from other 
men or women, and the sign of the Holy Cross exercising 
no effect on them, they thereby differ from other evil genii. 

The russalkas live in the water; but they often rise in 
legions from the waves, for the purpose of dancing in the 
moonlight on the prairies. They are so exquisitely beautiful 
and enticing, that whosoever looks on their charms must pine 
to death. Golden hair, from which clear drops of water like 
brilliants sparkle, falls in luxuriant curls on their snowy bosoms 
and shining shoulders. Eyes blue like the southern sky, and 
over-arched by velvety brows, a graceful, slender waist and 
enchanting forms, complete the picture so attractive to a 
poetical imagination. But these lovely beings possess neither 
hearts nor souls. He who, captivated by the bewitching call 
of a russalka, would follow and. clasp her in a passionate em- 
brace, would soon be goaded to frenzy by a certain sound and 
ripple on the water, by the rank aquatic plant pressed to his 
bosom, proving to him that he had been tricked by one of 
these mocking nixes. 

The Little-Russian's mind is filled besides with all kinds of 
superstitious- imaginations concerning sorcerers (Yedmas), 



THE RUSSIANS OF LITTLE-RUSSIA. 



71 



and magicians (Yedinaks, oupyres), or wise men and women 
fortune-tellers (Znakhars and Znakharkas). However tlies e 
good people are not considered as standing in any relationship 
to the Evil one. 

As regards the dialect spoken by the Little-Russians, the 
same may be said to have remained without hardly any 
admixture, excepting a few Tartar words that have stolen 
into it. It has remained far more faithful to the old Slavonic 
than the proper Russian language, although the latter has 
been adopted by the civilized classes, and moreover has re- 
mained the book language. 

Gogol has written comedies and other works in the Little- 
Russian dialect. The Russians are pleased to call the latter 
rough and barbarous, which is all the more unjust, as, without 
speaking of other merits, by which it is distinguished, it is 
incontestably the only Slavonic Russian tongue, by which 
the true epical and lyrical poetry of the Russian people has 
been transmitted to the present generations. It has preserved 
all the force and virgin quaintness of the mother tongue, 
such as one meets with in the ancient Slavonic. While 
still possessing many of the forms long since disappeared 
from the modern Russ, it is also more sonorous and har- 
monious to the ear. The tunes of the Little-Russian chaunts 
and songs are original and very poetical. With the exception 
of the songs which usually accompany all Russian dances 
(but of which there are not many), they all tend to reflect 
the mournful regret of a beatific past, never to return. Of 
all Russian tribes the Little-Russians furnish the best 
singers. The Imperial Chapel ever recruits from their 
country. 

Their songs, which from morn to eve resound in village, 
field, and wood, are now generally of modern date, excepting, 
however, those of the Tchornomorski Cossacks, their des- 
cendants, who have still preserved their ancient Cossack 
songs. The lays of the latter, known in literature under the 
name of " doum," are uniform, melancholy, but expressive 
of the historical subjects they tend to recall. 



72 



THE LAXD OF THE CZAR. 



The Germans have beautiful translations of Little-Russian 
poetry by Bodenstedt. 

RUTHENES. 

The Euthenes or Eussnjaks are the Little-Eussians in- 
habiting the right bank of the Dnjepr in the Governments 
of Kiev, Podolia, and Volkynia, as well as in the south- 
eastern parts of the kingdom of Poland They are the 
inhabitants of the ancient principality of Halitch, which 
belonged to Poland, with the exception of the town and 
borough of Kiev, in virtue of the treaty of Androussov. 
These Euthenes, under the double influence of the Poles and 
the Jesuits, form a nationality altogether distinct from the 
Malorossiani of the left bank of the Dnjepr. The inhabitants 
of Volhynia may be considered to be the purest type of these 
Euthenes in Eussia. 

The exterior of the Euthenes varies in appearance according 
to the countries they inhabit, so that amidst a large assembly 
of Euthenes, such as, for instance, one might meet at a fair, it 
is easy to recognize the inhabitants of each village by a certain 
characteristic peculiarity of features and dress. Earely tall, 
they are powerfully built, and the men have very broad 
shoulders. The women, though thin and pale, are pleasant 
to look at ; their heads are small, their faces oval, and their 
hair of dark colour. They are delicately built, and have very 
small feet. Their diseases consist principally of fevers, ague, 
and dysentery. 

Piety, honesty, and hospitality are the characteristic 
qualities of the Euthenes. Neither they nor the Little- 
Eussians possess those engaging, amiable manners towards 
the stranger, that, in so high degree, distinguish the genuine 
Eussian ; but their intentions are not less sincere and well- 
meant. Like the Little-Eussian, the Euthenes manufacture 
all the utensils they are in need of themselves, and are like 
the former, economical to avaricein all excepting the con- 
sumption of liquor. 



THE RUSSIANS OF WHITE-RUSSIA. 



73 



THE RUSSIANS OF WHITE-RUSSIA. 

They inhabit the Governments of Mokilev, Vitebsk, 
Smolensk, Tchernigov, Orel, Minsk, Grodno, and Yilna, to 
the number of 3,000,000 souls. Separated by the Poles 
from their Russian brethren, they rejoined the Russian 
Empire only since the middle of the last century, i.e. after 
the triple partition of Poland. They are the descendants of 
the ancient tribes of the Krivitches and Dregovitches of 
Eastern Russia, i.e. of one of the two Slavonic peoples that 
had settled in Russia proper. Their union with Poland, 
while separating them from the Russian Church, had not 
been able to enforce their adopting the Roman Catholic 
faith. 

The Polish nobility and clergy striving with all the means 
in their power to bring about the conversion of the whole 
population to the Roman religion, the White-Russian 
nobility first gave way to intrigues, promises, or intimidation, 
and were followed by a great part of the people, but only 
after a severe and prolonged struggle against unheard-of 
cruelties and oppression. Notwithstanding the latter a con- 
siderable portion of the peasantry remained constant and 
faithful to the Greek Church. 

The Russians of White-Russia proper are the real Bjeloruss, 
and inhabit the narrow strip of land situated between the 
Dvina and Dnjepr, and on the territory between those two 
rivers, which unite White-Russia to the Baltic and the Black 
Seas. This central position is of great importance in a 
geographical and commercial respect. 

One rarely meets among the Bjelo-Russ with the strong 
constitutions, numerous families, the patriarchal and peace- 
able customs of the peasantry of Great-Russia, who inhabit 
fine villages, and well-aired, spacious houses. No more does 
one encounter the lively Pole, distinguished in feature and 
form, though perhaps somewhat blustering and vain, with 
his slender, handsome, bright, and coquettish mate. Drained 
by the Jews (who have fastened like so many vampyres 



74 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



upon so large a portion of the Kussian populations), and by 
the excessive use of spirits, of all means of comfort, the poor 
peasant, after a hard day's work, finds but a wretched clay 
hut without a chimney, a water jug, and a piece of the 
coarsest possible bread, to rest his limbs in and to still the 
cravings of hunger and thirst. Notwithstanding the low 
degree of his civilization and his poverty, the White-Russian 
peasant is an exceedingly good-hearted and inoffensive fellow, 
though generally lazy, and backward in thrifty household 
qualities. 

This characteristic condition is caused partly by the 
oppression they experience at the hands of the bailiffs or 
stewards of the estates on which they exist, partly also by 
the " Yodka " (liquor), which serves to impoverish their 
blood and substance. This liquor, generally distilled from 
corn or maize, is sold by the Jews. These latter know how 
to render themselves indispensable to the peasant, even when 
a good crop has seemed to reward his labours. The Jew 
first of all refunds himself for all the loans he may have 
advanced, obliges the peasant to buy all sorts of things, and 
recoils not before any infamous trick, as long as he can draw 
his unfortunate dupe into drinking his liquors, and spending 
as fast as possible the last kopek he may possess. The 
Russian Government has, however, for some years past, 
interdicted the residence of the Jews in the White-Russian 
villages, as well as the establishment of their liquor hells 
within the parishes of that country. 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE COSSACKS. 

We now come to this most interesting class of the Russian 
population. 

The word " Cossack," or, according to Russian pronuncia- 
tion, " Kazak," has been considered by some to be of Tartar, 
by others of Tcherkess origin, as the latter, though called by 
the rest of the world " Tcherkess," go amongst themselves 
by the appellation of " Kashakh." Again, it is thought by 
some Russian writers, that the term " Cossack " might be a 
perversion of " Kaissak," originating with the Kirghiz- 
Kaissaks. The Cossacks form a living rampart, from 5,000 
to 6,000 miles in length along the entire Asiatic frontier of 
Russia, i.e. from the Sea of Okhotsk in Easternmost Siberia 
down to the Don and the Caucasus. They form a distinct 
fraction of the Russian nationality. A series of violent cir- 
cumstances, internal more than foreign, produced their 
aggregation, which afterwards developed itself completely 
during the struggle with the Tartar invaders and the warfare 
with Caucasian tribes. The Cossack element acquired real 
importance since the re-union to the Government of Moscow 
of those principalities that had for a long time been separated 
from the same, but particularly since the peasants had become 
part and parcel of the landed properties, when the Empire 
was troubled by religious agitations, and during the reign of 
the false Dmitris, which had plunged the administration of 
the country into an inextricably chaotic condition. 



76 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The Cossack system was a new form of organization of the 
" Commune " (Obshtshina) as it existed at the time of the 
division of the Empire of Russia into several principalities 
before and during the domination of the Mongols. It soon 
by its bold proceedings gave proof of the spirit that animated 
it, and of which it was capable. 

While the Cossacks of the Dnjepr owed their origin to 
the oppressive yoke of the Mongols, against whom they re- 
belled, those of the Don were born of the strife between the 
old and new " regimes," i.e. of the Commune (Obshtshina) 
against the yoke of the privileged classes, those of the 
lords and proprietors. 

In constant warfare with hostile tribes and factions, the 
sole cause and means of their existence being war, they were 
glad to recruit their numbers from men of any nationality, 
provided they were mighty in battle and of vigorous consti- 
tutions. 

Their importance was ever proportionate to the degree of 
danger they encountered. When the latter gave way to ad- 
vancing civilization, they were gradually restricted in and 
deprived of their privileges. Unjust as this measure may 
seem, it must not be forgotten, that with the disappearance 
of legitimate foes their warlike disposition was apt to find 
vent against their own countrymen. In search of warlike 
adventure they were not at all scrupulous about the colours 
they served, and often fought in the service of some of their 
former and most inveterate enemies. The purpose of their 
existence being war, they sought to live up to it at any price, 
and, in the absence of foreign enemies, they became a 
dangerous body, which kept Poland, Russia, Civilization, and 
Christendom in a constant state of fear on account of their 
perfidy, brigandage, and predatory habits. 

Secretly in intelligence with the Swedes, the cunning and 
ambitious Mazeppa played a most ambiguous part before the 
Czar, Peter the Great, until, unmasked by Menzhikov, he 
and his rebellious followers were severely punished, and 
after the battle of Poltava deprived of all their influence and 
power. 



THE COSSACKS. 



77 



Catherine II. abolished the dignity of the " Hetman " 
altogether. After the Cossack revolt of the river Yaik 
(Ural), she determined on the suppression of the ferocious 
and undauntable u setch " of the Zaporoghian Cossacks of 
the Dnjepr. The greater part of them refused to deposit 
their arms, but emigrated to Turkey. When by a subsequent 
treaty with that country the river Kuban was fixed upon as 
the natural boundary line of the Turkish dominions, Cathe- 
rine proposed to the Zaporoghians settling on that river in 
defence of the new frontier. They accepted her proposal and 
have ever since functioned in that capacity on the lands 
appointed them. 

During the reign of Ivan IY., Yermak, a Cossack brigand, 
conquered Siberia, a country which, strange to say, by some 
sort of fatality, has since become a place of punishment for 
outlaws like himself. Since the last century, and particularly 
in consequence of the revolts of Mazeppa and Pougatshev, 
the Cossacks of Little-Russia, of the Don, Yolga, and the 
Ural have lost their ancient privilege concerning the choice 
of their own Ataman, or Hetman, and officers. 

At the present day the Atamans nominated by the Czar 
seldom belong to the Cossack race, and the Ataman-general 
of all the Cossacks is " ipso jure," the hereditary prince of 
the Russian crown. 

The Cossacks vary in language and type with the country 
they inhabit. Those of the Caucasus, for instance, have com- 
pletely adopted the habits, arms, and dress of their ancient 
foes, the Tcherkess. Intermarriages and similarity of customs 
have nearly identified them with the latter, so that only ex- 
perienced eyes are able to make distinction between them. 
Agriculturists as well as warriors, they possess fine cattle 
and horses in great numbers. Without calculating Bash- 
kirs, Kirghiz -Kaissaks, and Caucasian militia, they can in 
case of war send into the field 150,000 cavalry, 50,000 foot, 
and a large park of artillery. 

The government supplying them only with ammunition 
and the artillery material, they must find provender for them- 



78 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



selves and horses wherever they can, which they manage to 
do by plunder. A cruel system ! They are particularly use- 
ful as patrols, vanguards, and for the purpose of veiling the 
movements of an army. The regular service of the army 
is opposed to their nature and training. Excellent coast 
and border-guards, foragers, and convoy ers, they develop in 
this kind of service an incredible sagacity, address, and 
intrepidity. 

The inseparable companion of the Cossack, his horse, is 
eminently gifted with all the indispensable qualities of a rough 
service. Small, but strong, and thriving on the most 
wretched food, the Cossack steed, which is shod only on the 
forefeet, will face any obstacle, and without baiting or repose 
whatever, perform immense courses by night or day. The 
Don ski horse has longer legs and is of a lighter build than 
the other Cossack horses. Its neck is longer and of greater 
flexibility. Like all steppe horses, that of the Kubanski 
Cossack is wary and timid, owing to the nightly aggressions 
of the wolves to which their taboons are constantly exposed. 
A certain apprehensive feeling prevents this horse from 
abandoning itself unconditionally to the enjoyment of sleep, 
and keeps it in a state of constant watchfulness, rendering 
its senses exceedingly acute, a quality of vital importance to 
its master. 

The horses of the Uralski Cossack are the smallest, but 
also the most patient, the strongest, and hardiest of all. 

The Cossacks of the Azov number about 10,000 souls. As 
farmers they almost equal the German colonists, who are 
justly considered the best agriculturists of Eussia. 

The Cossacks of the Superior Don River are mostly of fair 
complexion, grey eyes, and of a vigorous constitution. They 
also are good farmers, and take great pride in their horses 
and cattle. Thrifty even to avarice, they understand en- 
riching themselves in the service of the government. The 
women do all the work of house and field, spin and weave, 
and even make the clothes of the family. 

Their customs and morals are most severe. They are very 



THE COSSACKS. 



70 



sober, and observe great parsimony in dress and style of 
living, and the women even exceed the men in these quali- 
ties. They are greedy of gain, discourteous, and far less 
hospitable than, for instance, the Uralski Cossack, who will 
spend his last kopek in the cheer he delights to set before 
his guests. 

The intercourse of the sexes is subjected to most severe 
rules, and music and dancing is considered fit only for women 
of light character. 

The Cossacks of the Loiver Don are generally dark-com- 
plexioned and black-eyed. They are bold riders, and excel- 
lent marksmen. They make superior soldiers, and are 
therefore much esteemed in the military service, and ad- 
vanced to posts of distinction. At home they occupy 
themselves with divers small trades, commerce, agriculture, 
and fishing. 

The Cossacks of the Ural have preserved the Russian type 
more than any of the others, though less so in exterior 
appearance, than in customs and language. They inhabit 
the land on the river Ural (formerly Yaik) facing the Kirghiz 
Steppe, and extending from Orenburg to Gouriev at the mouth 
of the Ural river on the Caspian Sea. 

This river, owing to its capricious, accidental nature, is 
not navigable, but is most important on account of its fish. 
Its bed being particularly adapted for the deposit of the 
spawn, the fish abound here in prodigious numbers. The 
quantity of caviar gained is incredible, and its quality the 
best in the world. Part of the Steppe of the Cossacks is 
only fit for the breeding of cattle, but above and below 
Uralsk the country is very fertile and picturesque, rich in 
pasture lands, forests, and cultivated fields. It is conse- 
quently the most populated part of the district. 

The Uralski Cossacks owe their origin to the bands of 
Cossacks of the Don and Yolga, who had fled before the ad- 
vance of Murashkin, whom Ivan IV., Vassiljeveih in 1577, 
had dispatched to those rivers with orders to punish the 
Cossacks for their deeds of turbulence. They founded 



80 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Uralsk in the year 1622, and lent their support to Alexis 
Mikhailovich against his Polish and Swedish enemies. In 
1683 they were sent against the Bashkirs, and since Peter 
the Great shared in all the glory of Russian military enter- 
prise. . 

In Siberia the Cossack element after the expulsion of the 
Tartars had nowhere found so vast a field for its activity, 
or so easy a chance of booty, as on the Yaik. It has there- 
fore in no other locality preserved its ancient spirit of liberty 
in similar force. 

The Cossacks of the Ural represent a fine and robust race 
and are endowed with good sense and other amiable qualities. 
They live in Stanitzas (of from 100 to 200 houses), built at 
distances from each other of fifteen or twenty versts (seven 
versts equal four English miles). They are fond of luxury and 
splendour, and never grudge their money in the exercise of 
their hospitable feelings. Most of them can read and write, 
for which they may thank the Russian officers and officials, 
who, grateful for the pleasant sojourn amongst these jolly fel- 
lows, have generously striven by the establishment of libraries 
and reading-clubs to raise their intellectual standard. The 
" Raskolniks " (heretics, dissenters) amongst them are favour- 
ably distinguished by the superior education they give their 
children. Their mode of teaching is curious, inasmuch as the 
children must invariably learn all their lessons by heart. 
There are but few found amongst them who can neither read 
nor write. Dissent is rather fashionable amongst these Cos- 
sacks, for to 18,000 raskolniks and 50,000 " yedinovertsi '\ 
(old believers) there are only 2000 souls belonging to the 
orthodox Russian church. Of these numbers the dissenters 
are the best educated. 

The Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus are little distin- 
guished from those of the Black Sea (Tchornomorski) or of 
the Kuban. Like these they are active and bold warriors. 
Camped on the western part of the Caucasus, on the Laba 
river, facing the Tcherkess country, always amidst danger 
and battle, they have acquired a high degree of intrepidity, 



COSSACKS. 



51 



cunning, perseverance, physical strength, and subtlety of 
spirit. They may with justice be called the Russian Tcherkess, 
for by frequent intermarriages (the conquered women on both 
sides ever becoming the wives of the victors), they have 
become assimilated to the Tcherkess by blood and habit. 
They number together with the Tchoruomorski Cossacks 
about 250,000 souls, the males exceeding the females ; 
25,000 of them are constantly on service. Their property in 
live stock amounts to about 770,000 heads of cattle, 515,000 
sheep and 87,000 pigs. 

THE COSSACKS OF ASTRAKHAN. 

They number but 1 800 souls, and inhabit the banks of the 
Volga from Saratov to Astrakhan. Their principal settle- 
ment is situated in the country of Tchornoyar. 

The country of the Orenburg Cossacks is divided into 
twelve military districts. They amount to about 130,000 
souls, the female sex forming the larger half. Their 
live stock consists of 75,000 horses, 100,000 head of 
cattle, and 225,000 sheep. Their line extends over 250 
geographical miles in length, and faces the Kirghiz and 
other wild borderers. They are therefore constantly exposed 
to danger and of a hardy and courageous disposition. It is 
only in winter that they can enjoy some repose. During 
the other seasons their life is one of risk and hardship. 
Attached to them are a certain number of Bashkirs. The 
steeds of the latter, though wretched in appearance, possess 
most extraordinary faculties of endurance. 

THE COSSACKS OF SIBERIA, TRANSBAIKALIA AND OF THE AMOOR. 

Cited in history for their temerity and successful audacity, 
they, under Yermak, conquered the enormous continent of 
Siberia, the importance of which country has only recently 
begun to be understood by the Russians. Another Cossack, 
Moskvitin, penetrated through an immense steppe, covered 
with snow, as far as to the Pacific Ocean. 



82 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



A third, Deshnev, ventured in a small canoe upon the 
Glacial Sea as far as the Arctic pole, and became the dis- 
coverer of the " detroit," separating the old and new worlds. 
They are advantageously distinguished from the Orenburg 
Cossacks by a fine exterior, agility, address, strength, 
intelligence and a superior style of existence. Their line 
extending along the Kirghiz steppe is protected by many 
isolated posts, and consists of a plain covered by forests of 
birch trees and fresh and salt water lakes. Their houses are 
infinitely superior to those of the Orenburg Cossacks. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

When in the year 1320 King Ghedimin of Lithuania took 
Kief, a number of people fled from his cruelty, and settled 
down near the mouth of the Dnjepr. Constantly attacked 
by the Lithuanians, Poles, and Tartars, they defended them- 
selves with great bravery, and ended by becoming the most 
warlike community Russia has ever possessed. King 
Sigismund of Poland in 1540 ceded to them in perpetuity 
the territory above the falls of the Dnjepr. From this new 
land they took the appellation of Zaporoghian Cossacks 
(porog — cataract). Stephen Bathory gave them a commander, 
who took the title of Hetman or Ataman. Subsequently 
oppressed by the Poles, who wanted to bring them into the 
Roman church, they threw off their yoke in 1654, and under 
their Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitzki submitted to the Czars 
of Russia. The whole of Little-Russia followed their 
example, and were reunited to Great Russia after a separa- 
tion of 334 years. Though much more ancient than the 
Cossacks of the government of Kharkof, called the Slobodes, 
the Zaporoghian Cossacks held the second rank. They 
elected a leader called Kokherei Ataman. "Kokk" is a 
Tartar word signifying " camp." Their principal residence 
was called " Setcha," which means a fortified camp (otsetch, 
Russ., to separate, cut). 



CHAPTER VIII. 



SERBIANS. 

The Russian Serbians inhabit the government of Yeka- 
terinoslav and Kherson. Emigrants of recent date, under 
their Colonel Khorvat, they have quickly mixed with the 
rest of the population. 

The Serbian (Illyrian) nation has occupied since the seventh 
century of our era the country on the southern bank of the 
Sava to the frontier of Albania, and on the Morava as far as 
the Adriatic. Their customs were simple ; they were hospit- 
able, fond of music and song, but inveterate enemies of 
oppression. Their character has retained these qualities to 
this day. They became Christians, and joined the Byzantine 
Church in the seventh century. Previous to the Turkish 
domination they had great princes and heroes. Amongst the 
latter held the first rank Stephen Nemania, who conquered 
Bosnia, and founded a dynasty, which bore his crown and 
title for 200 years. This great sovereign (grand joupan) 
laid also the foundation to a national hierarchy, which 
under his successors insensibly became a completely indepen- 
dent institution, and proved a powerful support to the crown. 
The mightiest of all the princes of the House of ISTemania 
was Stephen Douchan, who lived in the fourteenth century. 
After 300 years* oppression by the Turks the Serbians rose 
like one man in defence of their nationality, and after a 
sanguinary struggle, which lasted many years, they succeeded 
in preserving it. While the banks of the Sava and Morava 
were still smoking with the blood shed in this war of 



84 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



independence, their echoes repeated the songs of a remark- 
able national poetry, born, as it were, of the troubles and 
dangers that had beset them. Slavonic taste, distinguished 
at all times by its music and poetry, has produced nothing 
to equal the warlike hymns and odes that were bred and 
cherished in the forgotten mountain-gorges of Serbia. By 
the side of a charming lyrical lore had risen up an epical 
poetry, which recalled not only the memories of a glorious 
past, but also of their vicissitudes during a period of 
oppression and degradation. A frequent subject were the 
recent battles, by which the people had known how to re- 
conquer its independence. The merit of these powerfully 
interesting creations is still further enhanced by the sweet 
harmony and grace of the Serbian language. They number 
about 6,000,000 of souls, of whom one half belong to the 
Greek, a third to the Koman Church, and about 600,000 
are Moslems. 

THE BULGARIANS. 

They number altogether 4,000,000 souls. Of these 59,000 
are living in Russia, viz. 45,000 in Bessarabia \ 11,000 in 
Kherson; 2500 in Taurida. Out of the total 4 millions, 
80,000 are Roman Catholics, 300,000 Mohamedans and the 
rest Greek Catholics. With the exception of 84,000, who 
are Russian and Austrian subjects, they all belong to 
Turkey ; emigrated into Russia since the beginning of the 
present century, they are peaceable and laborious colonists. 

THE POLES. 

This once so great and always interesting nation is 
represented in Russia to the number of 4,640,000 souls. 
Their total number is eight and and a half millions, of which 
two millions are in Austria, and 1,900,000 in Prussia. The 
kingdom of Poland is inhabited by 4, 764,000 souls (including 
600,000 Jews, and 300,000 Germans). The government of 
Grodno has 225,000, Podolia 205,000, Yilna 185,000, 



BULGARIANS, POLES, LITHUANIANS. 



S5 



Minsk 185,000, Yolhynia 165,000, Kief 75,000, Vitebsk 
70,000, Mohilev 40,000, Kovno, 30,000, St. Petersburg 
18,000, Courland 13,000, Yekaterinoslav 4000, Livonia 3000, 
Kherson 1000, Bessarabia 1000, of Polish inhabitants. The 
sexes are about equal in number. They are good soldiers, 
and have ever distinguished themselves by their valour. 
The aristocracy are a fine class of people, well cultivated, and 
of highly polished manners. Their ladies are exceedingly 
handsome and elegant in manners and appearance, and are 
therefore, like the Eussian ladies, great ornaments of society. 

The Polish peasant is not handsome, but well-grown, 
active, and brave. 

The language is a daughter of the ancient u Lekhe " or 
" Liakhe." With the exception of the Kasoobian dialect on 
the left bank of the Vistula this language has no particular 
dialect. The Silesian and Mazurian dialects contain many 
German words. It is a very beautiful and rich language, and 
has had great influence on the development of that of the 
Russian people. The Serbian language is the only Slavonic 
tongue surpassing the Polish in sonority. The Polish litera- 
ture is essentially flourishing at the present day, particularly 
in Prussian Poland, whose inhabitants are distinguished 
from all other Poles by a high degree of cultivation and by 
the superior material well-being they enjoy. 

THE LITHUANIANS. 

They are half-brothers of the Slavonic peoples, with whom 
they form a branch of the Indo-European race. The nearest 
relations of the Lito- Slavonic nation are the Germanic race. 
They inhabit the country south-east of the Baltic, to the 
north of the Dvina and south of the Njemen. They number 
now about 2,600,000 souls, i.e. 1,620,000 genuine Lithua- 
nians (of which 820,000 Litvins and 800,000 Imoods or 
Samoghetians), and 980,000 Letts. Of the Imoods 140,000 
inhabit the easternmost part of Prussia, and 220,000 the 
extreme north of Poland. 



86 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The period of their first settlement in the Baltic provinces 
has not as yet been accurately ascertained. Constantly 
fighting with hostile neighbours they preserved their savage 
and warlike character for a very long time, and the fourteenth 
century saw them still pagans. Their civilization began with 
their subjugation by the Poles, they became Eoman Catho- 
lics, and perfectly embodied with the Polish nation, so that 
all that can remind one now of Lithuanian nationality is 
limited to language, certain peculiarities of costume, and 
some isolated specimens of affinity to their ancient paganism. 

They proved most vexatious neighbours to the Russians 
ever since the middle of the twelfth century. In the depth 
of winter they fell in great force upon the provinces of Po- 
lotsk, Novgorod, Pskof, and even part of Volhynia, which 
they completely sacked and devastated, until they were met 
by Roman Mstislavich, who having routed them, pursued 
them to their very haunts. His cruel punishment was not 
forgotten by them for several centuries. 

During the Mongolian reign they had easy play with the 
oppressed Russian nation, and under their Grand Duke 
Ringold made repeated inroads into Russia. Checked by 
Alexander Nevsky he turned to the southern parts of the 
country, took all the land as far as Pinsk and threatened 
Volhynia. Pressed and defeated some time after by internal 
and external enemies, Ringold invoked the succour of the 
Pope Alexander IV., promising for himself and people to 
join the Roman Church. The Pontiff upon this at once 
recognized his sovereignty, and reconciled him to his ene- 
mies. But Ringold broke faith with him, and soon after 
was assassinated by his own family (in 1265). Lithuania 
passing into the hands of Prince Daniel of Halitch became 
the victim of the sanguinary vengeance of Ringold's son, 
who was a convert of the Greek Church. During the Mongol 
reign of terror they repeatedly invaded Russia. The real 
founder of the Lithuanian-Russian Grand-Duchy was Ghe- 
dimin (1320-1345), who, though himself a pagan, still was 
no enemy to Christianity. This great Prince conquered Vol- 



LITHUANIANS. 



87 



hynia, Tchernigov, and Kief, held the Mongols in check ? 
and attached those provinces by so strong a lien to his primi- 
tive country, that henceforth they shared in the fate of the 
latter, even subsequent to its loss of independence. Despot 
and warrior like his ancestors and people, Olgherd, son of 
Ghedimin (1345-1377) boldly bearded the Teutonic Knights 
and the Mongols, and extended his power to the land beyond 
the Dnjepr. Under his son Yaghello or Yagailo (1377- 
1434) Lithuania became annexed to Poland. In the year 
1386 Yaghello joined the Roman Catholic Church, and suc- 
ceeded to the Crown of Poland through his marriage with 
Yadviga (Hedwig), grand-niece of King Casimir. In 1413 he 
provoked the separation of the Kief Metropolitan from that of 
Moscow, but recognized the supremacy of Constantinople. His 
body-guard consisted entirely of Tartars. When he ascended 
the Polish throne, his cousin Yitold, though allied to Poland, 
was almost independent Grand-Duke of Lithuania. He 
became a Roman convert, defeated his neighbours, including 
the Tartars, conquered Smolensk, and in 1401, together with 
Yaghello, gave the " coup cle grace " to the Teutonic Knights 
at the battle of Tannenberg. But this independence could 
not last long ; the Roman Catholic Church had already too 
firm a hold on the people, and owing to Yaghello's influence 
and bribes of new bright-coloured kaftans and red boots 
which were distributed among the people, they speedily be- 
came converts to that religion which their nobles, inter- 
marrying with Polish ladies, had already embraced. The 
Polish and Catholic elements henceforth predominated and 
destroyed the independence of Lithuania, identifying its 
history with their own. Interesting is the method by which 
the Jesuits managed to bring about the conversion of the 
Greek Christians to their own Church. They began by 
establishing the so-called Union of the Greek and Roman 
Churches, which was ostensibly based on the Florentine 
Council. As soon, however, as the people seemed reconciled 
to this innovation, the Jesuits straightway walked over the 
bridge thus formed, and laid their destructive hand on the 



88 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Church. Union itself, which from this time became altogether 
Roman Catholic. 

The Litvins and the Samoghetians differ in dialect, 
customs, prejudice, and dress, as well as in the degrees of 
civilization. The Samoghetians are better farmers, wealthier, 
better informed, their villages are superior, and they live in 
ease and cleanliness. The etymology of the name Lithuanian 
lies in the words " Letoovi " (Lietoovninkas) and " Letoova," 
by which they designated the name of their nation and of 
their land. The old Latin name was " Lithvani " and 
" Lithva." The name " Samoghetian " is derived from the 
Lithuanian word, " Zemajtej " (he who comes from below), 
i. e. who lives near the sea. The Lithuanians are fine men, 
very fair, with blue eyes, which are large and next to pro- 
jecting. The nose forms a line with the forehead. Their 
skin is very white. The women are often extremely beau- 
tiful, with regular features, a brilliant complexion, blue 
eyes, fair hair, and slender waists. Their life, hitherto so 
hard, and their way of living so wretched, have already 
much improved since the emancipation of the serfs. Unfor- 
fortunately, here also Jew and liquor vie with each other in 
continuing as long as possible the miserable condition of 
this poor people. 

The women's lot is exceedingly hard. They assist the 
men in all their labours, even when in a condition requiring 
careful attention. No medical man ever looks after them. 
An old woman takes his place, who, when she finds her 
skill insufficient, holds a candle to her patient's nose, and 
knocks with a broom against the ceiling. Hardly is the 
patient relieved, when she is made to swallow a draught of 
hot spirits, mixed with red clay, hydromel, pepper, and 
butter. After two or three days the latter returns to her 
work, in addition to which she has now to nurse her 
baby, who perhaps keeps her awake for whole nights 
together. 

The nurse first of all washes the child in cold water, in 
memory of " Laooma " or " Laima " (the goddess of animal 



LETTS. 



^9 



and vegetable fecundity). For a whole year it knows no 
shirt, but is wrapt in swaddling clothes. 

The Lithuanians have preserved a host of traditions — songs 
and proverbs — evincing a discreet state of intelligence. Their 
legends have all a moral tendency and considerable poetical 
value, and are proofs of the taste of this people for the mar- 
vellous. 

The Yatviaghians, the immediate southern neighbours of 
the Lithuanians, and probably their brethren in race, are dis- 
tinguished from them by their ferocious character. They 
have completely lost their old language, and speak the Bus- 
sian dialect of White-Russia, and profess the Greek religion. 
They live in the districts of Kobrin, Bjelsk, Volkovisk, and 
Brest-Litovsk (government of Grodno). 

THE LETTS. 

They number about one million of souls, and are distri- 
buted throughout Courlande (460,000), the southern part of 
Livonia (360,000), the western part of the government of 
Vitebsk (140,000), that of Kovno (16,000), that of St. 
Petersburg (3000), and the government of Pskof (1000). 
They are Lithuanians intermixed with Fins — viz. Semigalls, 
Zales, and Cours. This fusion is the result of Teutonic in- 
fluence, to which the Letts are, on the whole, indebted for all 
the good and bad that has ever fallen to their lot. About 
the time of Christ's nativity, a people called the Venedes in- 
habited the eastern backs of the Vistula; and still further to 
the east lived the Esthonians, another people of Finnish or 
Tchoodish descent, who then, as now, were distinguished by 
their serious and taciturn character. The Venedes (now 
Vends) were subsequently expelled from the environs of 
Vindan and Eiga by the Cours (then still purely Finns), and 
who then went in search of the Letts — probably Finns, also 
together with whom they founded the town of Venden. 
The Esthonians, Livonians, and the Courlanders (Finnish or 
Tchoodish tribes, spreading themselves from north to south 
over the eastern coasts of the Baltic) became partly thrown 



90 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



back by Lithuanian tribes in a nor tli- western direction, and 
partly absorbed in their mass. Part of this mixed race 
settled in the country where now Vilna stands. The Estho- 
nians were driven back to the north, the Livonians to the 
west as far as the sea-coast, but with regard to the Cours, 
they preferred joining the victors in the country to the south 
of the Gulf of Riga. 

The Letts (Latykhy of the Russians) call themselves in 
their own idiom " Liatvis," their land " Liatvejou-zemme." 
They belong principally to the Protestant church (750,000), 
and there are about 170,000 Roman and 60,000 Greek 
Catholics. 

The creeds they profess have a very varying influence on 
their character. While the Protestants are generally thrifty, 
laborious, and clean, the Catholics are lazy, ignorant, un- 
cleanly, drunkards, and poor; but, however intellectually 
dull, they are most bigoted to their religion. 

Their country is inhospitable and covered by vast forests. 

THE WALLACHIANS. 

They represent a fusion of Daces (Celts), Romans, Sla- 
vonians (also Getes and Petsheneghians). Of the 770,000 
souls living in Russia, 620,000 inhabit Bessarabia, 95,000 
Kherson, and 13,000 Yekaterinoslav. They are a handsome, 
thrifty, and peaceable race, and good agriculturists. They 
are as yet very ignorant, and want the intellectual sparkle of 
the eye, which alone can make beauty interesting. Their 
morality is severe, and their women, who are pretty and 
delicately built, are of a charmingly gentle and modest de- 
meanour. Their features are seldom sharply delineated, for 
their whole frame is peculiarly rounded off in all its details : 
there is nothing approaching the angular form in their ap- 
pearance. Their picturesque dress greatly enhances the 
effect of their slender and upright figures. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE OSSETS, OR OSSETINIANS. 

They are composed of four, families — i.e. of the Digor, 
Kourtati, Alaghir, and Tagaoor, of which the first and last 
are the most important. Wakhoucht, in describing the 
Ossets, attributes to them black eyes and brown hair, a small 
and clumsy stature. Their women he states to be small, re- 
plete, and rarely good looking. The author, who is inti- 
mately acquainted with this tribe, agrees with Wakhoucht 
regarding the colour of eyes and hair. He has generally 
found them to be of middle size and slender build, though 
exceedingly active and muscular. As there are exceptions to 
every rule, so is there in this case, for he has seen very tall, 
powerful, as well as a few small and stout men amongst 
them. All the women that came under his observation were 
of ordinary size and slender frames. Their features were 
neither handsome nor ugly. They seemed all very hard 
worked. The costume of the Ossets resembles that of the 
Tcherkess, and is, like the latter, very picturesque and 
practical. Their language is purely Iranian, and each of 
the four families has its own dialect. It contains many 
Germanic roots. A certain want of flexibility proves the 
long contact of the Ossets with many different tribes, and 
which has resulted in the loss to their language of the ancient 
richness of the original Indo-European root. It is, however, 
far richer and more supple than the modern Persian. It has 
no literature whatever. 

The Ossets call themselves Ironians, and their country 



92 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Ironistan, while the Georgians apply to them the name of 
" Osso " or " Osseti," after a kind of cheese they manufac- 
ture. One half of them are Christians, the other Moham- 
medans. Their system of Christianity partakes more or less 
of Islamism and Paganism. M. de Pauly calls the Ossets 
one of the rudest and most insignificant races of the Caucasus, 
that had no taste for poetry, nor the chivalrous spirit which 
so eminently distinguishes their neighbours the Cabardians 
or the Tcherkess (Adighe), nor did they possess the religious 
zeal and love of liberty of the Lesghi, who have only recently 
been conquered. 

The writer of this having had peculiarly favourable oppor- 
tunities for observing this people, he may be allowed to differ 
(with regard to their character) with the above-named great 
authority. Their feats of horsemanship and warlike exercises 
are by no means inferior to those of the Tcherkess, and their 
hunting exploits and daring chase of bear, wolf, and fox 
would excite the admiration of the boldest backwoodsman 
or fox-hunter. Surrounded as they always were by powerful 
warlike tribes of domineering disposition and far greater 
numbers, they have been driven to the wild refuges of the 
almost inaccessible mountains forming the valley of the 
Terek. It is highly probable that the recollection of former 
oppression on the part of the above Caucasian nations had 
induced them to neglect the comparatively easy defence of 
their natural mountain strongholds, and to throw them- 
selves, so to say, into the arms of a nation from which 
they might expect permanent protection and chances of 
speedy civilization. The author has had proofs of their 
desire of becoming useful citizens of the great Russian 
household by turning their swords, henceforth useless, 
into ploughshares, and by embracing the habits of in- 
dustry and thrift, which had raised the nations of western 
Europe to the high standard of power and prosperity they 
are known to enjoy. They were the first of the wild moun- 
tain tribes who attempted the introduction of European 
appliances. One of their principal chiefs, Moussa Kondook- 



OSSETS. 



93 



hov, applied to an eminent Ipswich firm of engineers for 
agricultural machinery and utensils, and it is a pity that he 
was not supported in his anxious endeavours by those who 
ought to have used every means in their power to ensure the 
permanent settlement of an intelligent, docile race like that 
of the Ossets. But the military authorities had little 
sympathy for all that lived " a la Tcherkesse " and did not 
belong to their own church. The consequence was, that M. 
Kondookhov, a chief distinguished for his intelligence and 
moderation, who had had the advantage of a St. Petersburg 
education, and appeared well read and informed, joined with 
all his tribe the Mohammedan emigration to Turkey in 1865. 
Two of his boys, Asslam Beg and Khas-Bij, were frequent 
visitors at the writer's house, and more high-spirited, gentle- 
manly, and intelligent lads it would be difficult to meet with 
anywhere. Although gratitude for the unbounded heart-felt 
hospitality experienced at the hands of this people render 
the task of vindicating their often-traduced character a matter 
of great pleasure to the author, the above account contains 
not a single word but what is strictly true and based on 
personal experience. The reader will perhaps feel interested 
in the narrative of the writer's reception by the Ossets, inas- 
much as it furnishes an accurate description of the customary 
manners accompanying similar occasions. 

About Easter, 1864, we arrived at Yladikavkas, the 
Russian town and fortress at the northern foot of the Kazbek 
pass, and not very far from the celebrated ancient Caucasian 
gates of Dariel (see Chapter L, Caucasus). After we had 
for two days enjoyed the Easter hospitalities of some of the 
Russian officers (amongst whom I must particularly dis- 
tinguish Cols. Yon Eglan and Lubinsky, as well as Col. and 
Capt. Dudarov,two Ossetinian, cousins), a numerous company 
of mounted Ossets, who had been sent by General Koudookhov 
for the purpose of escorting us to his place, made their 
appearance, and, in proof of the innocent and unpolitical 
purport of our visit, included also the two first-named officers 
in their invitation to their mountain home. The latter was 



94 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



situated in a long and wide valley of the Black Mountains, 
at a distance of about 24 miles. The way led across a fertile 
prairie clad in its best dress of early spring. Our escort, 
numbering 100 or more men, entertained us, chemin faisant, 
by feats of horsemanship and dexterous manoeuvres. 

One man would ride ahead at full speed, and, at about 300 
yards' distance, drop a piece of paper on to the ground. The 
others then followed one by one in full career, and, without 
pulling up, would discharge their guns at the paper, load 
again with incredible rapidity, and without abating speed, 
return again to the sport. They also tried to pick up a fur 
cap which one had thrown down, in which feat several of 
them succeeded with the greatest ease. The ride was 
pleasantly interrupted by the arrival at a large village belong- 
ing to the Ossetinian chief, Col. Mohammed Dudarov. We 
rode into a spacious square court, at the one side of which 
stood his neat dwelling-house, and a little apart from it the 
hall of the guests, or " Kornatski." It consists of a large 
hall, furnished by a huge fireplace, and ottomans arranged 
Turkish fashion around the walls, which latter again were 
hung with the arms and Tcherkessian mail helmets and 
armour of former times. 

At the threshold of the kornatski we were received by Col. 
Dudarov, who offered us the welcome cup of native porter 
of excellent quality, with which we had to wash down a long 
ceremonious speech in the Ossetinian language. After having 
led us through the kornastki, we repaired to his own dwelling- 
house, at the door of which we had to pass through a similar 
ceremony, at which, however, Madame la Veuve Cliquot 
assisted instead of John Barleycorn. The interior of the 
house presented a mixture of Russian and Oriental comfort. 
The conversation, interlarded by the pops of the champagne 
bottles, became very animated, but as the advancing afternoon 
soon put a stop to the banquet and drove us into the saddle, 
the temporary damage done to the understanding of the 
party only served to heighten the excitement of the sport. 
When the sun had set some time we arrived at last at our 



PERSIANS. 



95 



friend's house. He stood on the platform before his house, 
in the midst of his brothers and cousins, waiting to receive 
us. He wore a Tcherkess dress, of a beautifully delicate 
lavender colour, and, after a hearty embrace and Ossetinian 
speeches of welcome, which were separately confirmed by his 
brothers, he led us into his most comfortable mansion, and 
to his well-furnished dinner-table. The dinner was served on 
silver, and all the tankards and other drinking vessels were 
of the same metal and of most artistic form. The quality of 
the victuals was exquisite. Besides the most delicious 
mountain mutton and beef, there was an astonishing variety 
of game. After dinner we repaired to the library, where we 
lit cigars and talked till midnight. A clapping of his hands 
was most promptly obeyed by half a dozen great bearded 
mountaineers, who, pushing us on to the ottomans, despoiled 
us of our dress with a dexterity which seemed to betray 
considerable experience in the operation. During the night 
we were guarded by half a dozen of tall and serious warriors, 
who stood at the open door upright and unmoving like statues. 

The limits of this work not permitting a larger space to 
this subject, the full account of the author's stay amongst this 
people must be deferred to another occasion. 

Their villages are often situated in localities that seem 
accessible only to the eagle or the chamois. The writer, 
when watching their agricultural labours from the other side 
of the valley, has often been struck by the grotesque aspect 
of their teams of oxen, which, in toiling up the hill, seem to 
stand on their hind legs and on each other's heads. 

The chapter on Russian languages will also treat of the 
Ossetinian dialects. 

THE PERSIANS. 

The Talychs, or Tolychs, of the government of Baku, form 
part of those of Persia, and inhabit the south-western coast 
of the Caspian Sea. Their language is spoken in 140 villages 
of that government. It is one of the Iranian languages, 
and somewhat analogous to the Persian. They are of middle 



96 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



size, well-proportioned and of dark complexion. The Talychs 
number near Lenkoran, in the government of Baku, about 
15,000 souls, and remind one strongly of the Indian type. 
Although they keep their hair cropped close, they rarely 
cover their heads. Their women, although of wild exterior, 
are for that not repulsive, but rather good-looking. Their 
character is pacific, generous, and hospitable, but they are 
rather indolent. In their morals they resemble their Tartar 
neighbours. Their country is thickly wooded, and has a most 
luxuriant vegetation. The soil is swampy, the air damp, 
and the climate hot and unhealthy. 



THE KOURDHS. 

They represent no special, well-defined tribe, but have 
been by many supposed to be the descendants from the ancient 
Chaldeans, the Iranian nation of warriors and conquerors, 
some legions of which, as far back as 2,000 years before 
Christ, exercised a decisive influence on the Semitic tribes 
living on the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. This same type, 
as represented by the figures of czars and warriors in the 
ancient Assyrian works of art, may be traced to individuals 
of the present generation of Kourdhs. An indomitable and 
eminently warrior-like spirit distinguished the Kourdhs from 
the most distant time. The celebrated Sultan Saladin was a 
Kourdh. Their resistance to the Mongols was most obstinate, 
and Timour at last conquered a part of Kourdistan only at 
an immense sacrifice of blood and time. In the 14th century, 
Sultan Soliman the Great invaded Western Kourdistan, but 
the Turks had the greatest difficulty in maintaining their 
possession. Their country is at present divided between 
Turkey, Persia, and Russia, but with regard to the two first 
powers their submission can only be called a nominal one. 
They are constantly at war with those powers, for in the 
Persians (their brethren in race) they see Khiites, so abhorred 
by them, and in the Turks their odious conquerors, whom they 
consider themselves privileged to rob and kill. The territory 



KOURDHS. 



07 



they occupy extends from 40° latitude West, or from Angoura to 
KE. of the great Salt Lake. It is but a few years since that 
their hordes advanced as far as Constantinople. There are 
a few in Mesopotamia, many in Syria, particularly in the 
province of Aleppo. They are established on the whole of 
the territory between Lake Ourmia and the Persian Gulf, 
and may be found in equal numbers in the Khorasan (from 
Khor-(pers)-Sun). Like the ancient Chaldeans, they are 
expert in agricultural pursuits, and are altogether active and 
clever workmen: Their principal wealth consists in cattle, 
herds of sheep, buffaloes, cows, goats, horses, and camels. 

They are tall in stature, and very powerful. Their heads 
are round, throats slender. Their features are regular, the 
forehead is free, the hair black and thick, the nose aquiline, 
eyes brown and brilliant, and complexion dark. The 
expression of their countenance is on the whole agreeable, 
energetic, and manly. The women are not often beau- 
tiful. They are an aristocratic and feudal people, brave, 
frank, honest in mutual relations, devoted to their princes, 
modest, grateful, lively, and sociable. They love music and 
dancing, are proud of their nationality, and cherish a pro- 
found sentiment of morality. Their vengeance is sanguinary, 
and they love plundering, but always strictly respect the 
female sex. Amongst the Mohammedan nations they seem 
to prepare for themselves an important future. Their lan- 
guage, similar to the Persian, evinces considerable Arab 
influence. The objects of their songs are their heroes and 
their deeds of valour, their country, mountains, vales, and 
brooks, &c. Although mostly professing Islamism, they 
are on the whole indifferent Mussulmen. Their Christians 
belong to the Nestorian sect. There are besides three other 
sects of religionists : the Yessids, Ali-Ullakhi, and Tchorakh- 
Souderan. The first believe in one God, Christ, and the 
Virgin, but join to this creed some utterly foreign doctrines. 
They have no religious books, eat the meat of cattle that 
has met with a natural or unnatural death, and are fond of 
spirits. Old women are with them objects of incredible 

ii 



OS 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



veneration. There are about a million of them in Asia Minor, 
in Erivan only a few hundreds. 

1st. The Ali-Ullakhi : Their God is called Ali, and the 
cock plays an important part in their rites. 

2nd. The Tchorakh-Souderan (extinguisher of lights) are 
so-called, because they congregate at night, and are believed 
to adore high trees, rocks, and other majestic creations of 
Nature. 

The Kussian Kourdhs live principally in Erivan, Baku, 
and Kouta'is. Of the 11,000 souls, 7500 are nomadic, 
and 3500 have fixed residences; 7000 are Mohammedans 
(Khiites), 4000 Sounnites, 300 Yessids, and a few Christians. 

THE RUSSIAN GIPSIES (TSYGANES). 

They are supposed to be Indians, and are spread over a 
great part of Western Asia, North Africa, and Eastern 
Europe. In Egypt roam three tribes of them ; the Helebis, 
Gagars, JSTooris or Navers. The Navers of Palestine and 
Syria call themselves Kourbats, Eoumeles, Yingani ; all 
lead a vagabond life, but occupy themselves also with divers 
trades. In Persia most of them are saddlers (tsingars). 
Their language presents great analogy to that spoken by 
some of the peoples living between the Indus and Himalaya. 
They were probably driven westward by Timoor (1408- 
1409), for after 1417 they were suddenly seen in great 
numbers in Germany. One of their tribes calls itself Yats, 
which seems to point to the Indian tribe Yat. There are 
about 50,000 in Kussia. In Trans-Caucasia they number 
3000, who speak Turkish, and whose morality is detestable. 
The remainder is distributed throughout the country in the 
following manner: — In Bessarabia are 18,000; in Taurida, 
8000; in Voronezh, 2600; in Kherson, 2500; in Kursk, 1000 ; 
in Moscow, 1000 ; in Kharkov, 1000 ; in Kief, 900 ; in Smo- 
lensk, 800 ; in Poltava, 800 ; in Kalouga, 600 ; in Vitebsk, 
600 ; in Bjazan, 600 ; in Orel, 500; in Samara, 500 ; in Tcher- 
nigov, 500 ; in Yarosslav, 500 ; in Poland, 350, &c. 



JEWS. 



99 



THE JEWS. 

To the Semitic or Syrio-Arab nations belong tbe Jews, 
Chaldeans, Syrians, Arabs, and Abyssinians (the ancient 
Ethiopians). The immigration of Semitic tribes into Africa 
took place probably anterior to Abraham. The Ethiopian 
Jews most likely came from Asia, whereas the African 
Ethiopians never went to Asia« The Abyssinian Jews, 
called there " Falassians, i.e., the Banished," probably went 
there after the conquest by Nebuchadnezzar. They have pre- 
served their ancient customs, language, and sacred Hebrew 
writings. Their race in the course of years has considerably 
increased, for while at the period of their independence they 
only numbered four millions, they now count already seven 
millions. 

The Jews of Russia are divided into two principal fractions. 
The first is formed by the Israelites or Talmudists, which 
again divide into Rabbinists (Misnaghids) and the Kabba- 
lists (Khassids). The second fraction are the Karaemes, of 
whom by-and-by. 

The Israelites are called by the Russians Yevreis or Jids, 
the latter being their own execrable version of the German 
" Jude." 

There are about 2,000,000 of Israelite Talmudists in 
Russia, viz., 600,000 in Poland, 195,000 in Podolia, 225,000 
in Kief, 188,000 in Yolhynia, 114,700 in Kovno, 95,500 in 
Grodno, 97,500 in Minsk, 103,000 in Mohilev, 75,500 in 
Yilna, 65,500 in Bessarabia, 60,500 in Kherson, 62,500 in 
Yitebsk, 30,000 in Tchernigov, 25,500 in Poltava, 22,500 in 
Courlancl, 13,000 in Yekaterinoslav, 4000 in Taurida, 2000 
in St. Petersburg. The remainder are sprinkled over the 
different Russian provinces, and some are met with even in 
Siberia and the Caucasus. In many provinces their estab- 
lishments in the villages are interdicted. This prohibition 
is based on the experience of several centuries, and is easily 
explained by the fact, that about one-third of t})3ir number 



100 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



are proprietors of liquor hells. The common Jews live 
generally in the ill-famed quarters of the towns, in wretched 
houses, in dirt and an unwholesome atmosphere. The con- 
sequence is often an infirm age, scorbutic women, rachitic 
children, and a hideous disease called u kaltoun." The air 
in the houses is suffocating, and the latter are swarming 
with vermin. Uncleanliness is their constant companion. 
Their sobriety is, however, unquestionable. They are generally 
excellent husbands and fathers. They marry mostly at a 
very early age, and boys of sixteen are often fathers. 
Hygienic reasons make them abstain from many kinds of 
food. 

Amongst their artizans are watchmakers, engravers, 
and jewellers, who enjoy a greater respect than the tailors, 
hatters, dyers, carpenters, tinkers, smiths, upholsterers, 
carriage makers, &c. The higher classes are represented by 
bankers, merchants, manufacturers, contractors, and distin- 
guished physicians. There are many highly-educated, exalted 
men amongst this class, whose charitable munificence is 
extended with equal liberality to people of all faiths. 

The kingdom of Poland has the greatest proportion of 
Jews. It amounts to about one-eighth of the whole popula- 
tion. Warsaw has about 42,000 out of a population of 
161,00t) souls. They seem to crowd principally in places 
where political and household matters are most disordered. 
The two great centres of the Jews in Eussia are Berdytcheif 
in Volhynia and Shklov in the government of Mohilev. The 
greatest part of the Odessa trade is in the hands of Jews. 



THE KARAlMES (THE SECOND FRACTION). 

Their number in Eussia amounts to about 6000 souls, of 
whom 4000 are in the Crimea (near Bakktchissarai, in the 
borough of Tchoufoute-Kale, also called town of the Ka- 
ra'imes), 700 in Kherson, 500 in Vilna, 300 in Volhynia, 250 
in Kovno, and 500 in the Caucasus. They enjoy great credit 

and privileges in Eussia. They maintain their doctrine to be 

*** 



KARA1MES. 



101 



the pure Mosaic, and free of all spurious innovations. Ac- 
cording to their doctrine all celestial and terrestrial bodies 
are created, with the exception of the Creator himself. " At 
the day of judgment," they say, " the Lord will awaken the 
dead, that they may rise and be judged according to their 
deeds. The Lord has punished his chosen people by banish- 
ment, and from Him direct one must daily expect the 
Messiah, the son of David." They reject all verbal tradition, 
and keep strictly to the old text of Moses. They were sepa- 
rated from the Israelites already before the advent of Christ, 
and came first into Europe with the Arabs, amongst whom 
they lived in Portugal and Spain, and afterwards in North 
Africa, for several centuries. Their principal centre has been 
Cairo. They are found in Europe, in Kussia, Moldavia, 
Vallachia, Gallicia, and Constantinople; in Asia, on the 
Euphrates, and in Persia. In the Crimea they write Tartar, 
their maternal language, with Hebrew letters. The Hebrew 
language is known alone to their " savants." 

At Constantinople they speak Greek ; in Egypt and on 
the Euphrates, Arab ; in Western Russia, Polish. The dis- 
tinctive traits of their character are modesty, purity of 
morals, love of work, and sobriety. Their society includes 
no lazy characters, beggars, or criminals. Their word is 
implicitly believed in by ever} T body. They are generally tall 
and robust, have black hair, and very cleanly habits. Their 
women are beautiful ; their skin is white, and their eyes of 
the fine shape and colour of those of the Oriental women. 
They are honest, moderate in business, and esteemed by 
everybody. 



CHAPTER X. 



THE ARMENIANS. 

They are one of the most ancient peoples of the universe, 
and distinguished for their early and precocious civilization. 
They inhabit in close numbers the hills of Asia Minor and 
Iran, and notwithstanding the great and constant vicissitudes 
they have undergone in the course of many centuries, 
have maintained their nationality and religion with Oriental 
obstinacy. Their country being situated on the very high- 
road of Asiatic and European invasion, it alternately became 
the battle-ground of Assyrians, Medians, Persians, Romans, 
and Partisan's, Sounnites and Khiites, Russians and Cauca- 
sians. They are the Jews of the East ; like the latter hated 
and despised, though indispensable. Their history com- 
mences 2000 years before Christ. They trace their origin to 
Haik (Gaik), great grandson of Japhet, who is believed to 
have settled in Assyria subsequent to his revolt against Bell. 
For this reason they call themselves " Hal" or " Harks," 
and claim a near relationship with the Persians. This name 
became current amongst them since Aram, sixth successor 
of Haik. Their country, Armenia or Haistan, takes these 
two names from the above sources. It is divided into Great 
and Little Armenia by the River Euphrates. A part of their 
territory was always independent, others were under Median 
and Persian supremacy till the conquest of Alexander the 
Great, who killed the last sovereign of the house Haik in 
battle. His name was Vaghe. They subsequently made 
submission to Mithridat I. the Great (Arsacis VI.) of Par- 



ARMENIANS. 



103 



tkia, who placed one of his relatives on the throne, whose 
family reigned for six centuries, viz., from 149 B.C. till 
a.d. 428. 

Theodosius the Great divided Armenia with the Shah of 
Persia about a.d. 387. In the year 885 a member of 
the Jewish family of Bagratis received the title of Czar 
of Armenia from the Caliphe Mohammed. In consequence 
of this circumstance great trouble came over the country 
under three dynasties of native princes (till 1080). At the 
beginning of the twelfth century the Turks (Seldshoukides) 
conquered Great Armenia. Supported by David II. of 
Georgia, Armenia passed alternately into Turkish and 
Georgian hands, until at last, between the years 1232-39, 
it became the prey of the Mongols, who devastated it com- 
pletely. From this time it lost all political significance, and 
fell afterwards into the power of the Turks and Persians. In 
1828, it was acquired by the Russians. 

Christianity had been introduced into the country as far 
back as the year 300 during the reign of King Tiridate, by 
St. Gregory. However salutary the same may have operated 
on individuals and their morals, politically it proved ruinous 
to the country, in destroying its warlike character and 
exposing it to the hatred of surrounding Pagans and 
Moslems. 

In 406 a new alphabet was ordered by Patriarch Isaac, 
and the Bible translated. The former consisted rather of the 
old alphabet perfected and augmented by seven letters. In 
491 the Armenians called a National Council, which resulted 
in their solemn separation from the Greek, and forming 
henceforth a Church of their own. The principal dogmata 
of the Armenian Church are the following : " Christ is of 
one substance only. The Holy Ghost emanates alone from 
the Father. The torments sinners have to suffer in the 
next world are not eternal," &c. The Armenians celebrate 
Baptism and Confirmation conjointly. For the Sacrament 
of the Eucharist they use pure wine and leavened bread. 
The latter is steeped into the wine, and thus is passed from 
one to the other. 



104 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The Armenian-Gregorian Church in Russia numbers 
400,000 adepts, 1000 churches, a few monks and nuns, and 
upwards of 2000 priests. The Nestorian sect numbers about 
1000 souls. The latter admit of bigamy. Their church 
service and sacred books are performed and written in the 
Syriac language. The total number of Armenians is about 
two millions, and they live nowhere in compact masses. 
Their Russian subjects reside mostly in Trans-Caucasia, 
viz., 120,000 in Baku, 100,000 in Erivan, 75,000 in Tiflis, 
40,000 in the government of Kutais, 15,000 in that of 
Stavropol, 15,000 in Daghestan, on the Terek and Kouban. 
European Russia is inhabited in the following provinces: 
in Yekaterinoslav, 19,000; in Astrakhan, 6000; in Taurida, 
4000 ; in Kherson, 3000 ; in Bessarabia, 2000 ; and a few 
hundreds at St. Petersburg, in Podolia, and Moscow. 

The Armenians lost much of their individuality of character 
and morality in consequence of their long oppression by the 
Turks and Persians. Weighed down by the foreign yoke, 
they learned to think only of their own material interests. 
Vaunting, full of self-love, and greedy for honours and 
distinction, they still prefer applying their faculties to peace- 
ful pursuits and literature. They acquit themselves well 
under arms, and may boast of some of the most remarkable 
individualities amongst the most valorous chiefs of the 
Russian army. 

The territory of Russian Armenia is mountainous and of 
volcanic formation, the rocky ground is covered by a thin 
stratum only of humus or mould, which is productive alone, 
when constantly kept moist by a laborious system of irriga- 
tion. Without this the land would be an arid desert, similar 
to the higher localities, where irrigation has deteriorated 
owing to the indolence and neglect of the inhabitants. An 
English engineer has been for a considerable time engaged 
in tracing the whole of Trans-Caucasia, and in drawing up a 
system of irrigation on a gigantic scale. Probably the state 
of the treasury of the country may not for the present permit 
of the execution of this scheme, but there is no doubt but 



ARMENIANS. 



105 



that it will be carried out before long, for the advantages that 
must result from it are too immense, not to excite extraor- 
dinary efforts on the part of the Russian Government. 

The high antiquity of the now existing canals is proved by 
the flourishing and prosperous condition of the country and 
its inhabitants nearly 3000 years ago. It may be divided 
into three differently conditioned parts, viz., the high 
mountain land, the moderately hilly country, and the low- 
land or plain. The last is the hottest, richest, and most 
densely populated. 

The Armenians may rank with the most beautiful races of 
the earth. They are well-proportioned, of smaller and more 
delicate build than the Georgians, and dark complexions. 
Their eyes are large and black, their profile frequently Greek, 
the forehead perhaps slightly too low, and their chests too 
flat. Their character is mild and calm; they are polite, 
unobtrusive, moderate, and remain true to old customs and 
ancient occupations. Ignorant perhaps and uncultivated, 
they are endowed with considerable capacity and good sense. 
Their excellent memory favours the acquisition of foreign 
languages, though their pronunciation is generally defective. 
The Armenian is essentially rational, sentiment being with 
him of very secondary consideration ; therefore the litera- 
ture of the country, once sufficiently rich, contains no poetical 
production. With the genius of speculation, his address and 
cunning, he possesses the remarkable faculty of accommo- 
dating himself to circumstances, and to conform his occupa- 
tions to the latter. At home he is farmer, in Russia merchant, 
and in the Caspian provinces he grows silkworms. He holds 
steadfastly to his religion and nationality, and zealously 
contributes towards the expenses and maintenance of his 
churches and monasteries. Mutual sympathy, and a strong 
feeling of national fraternity, bind all Armenians together. 
They encourage arts and sciences, and strive to give their 
children the best education their means will allow. Those 
educated in Russian colleges have made an honourable 
name for themselves in divers careers. They are patient, 



106 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



diligent, calculating, and sober to excess, so to say. Their 
manners are insinuating and seductive, but their attachment 
disappears with the opportunity for gain. Their women are 
indolent, or rather lazy to immovability. Their costume 
resembles the Persian. 

The villages are dirty and badly kept. Family and cattle, 
including swarms of insects of numerous species, all live to- 
gether in the greatest harmony. In the country about 
Nakhitchevan the misery is dreadful and general. Their 
songs are anything but melodious, their music loud and 
monotonous. Their dances are certainly not graceful. The 
Armenian language is poor, inflexible, and uniform. Its 
many nasal and guttural consonants render it disagreeable 
to the ear ; the pronunciation is monotonous, and wanting in 
harmony. It possesses many Arian roots, but of all the 
Iranian tongues the Armenian deviates mostly from the 
Arian idioms in general. 



CHAPTEE XI. 



THE GERMANS. 

The German class of emigrants called into Russia by the 
Czars Ivan III. and IV., or their descendants, are, for the 
most part, established in the towns as artists, chemists, 
physicians, merchants, professors, &c. Their artizans, who 
are generally hard-working, talented, and persevering, in 
most cases succeed in making a little fortune, which again 
enables them to start their children in commerce, send them 
to college, or to let them embrace the military profession, &c. 
The younger generation, born in Eussia, but brought up 
in genuine German style, anxious to pass off for Russians 
by the adoption of the language and manners of the country, 
generally share the unfortunate fate of a go-between or 
neuter production, for they deceive nobody by their swagger, 
least of all the Russians, who esteem far more the original 
German character than this kind of bastardism, which is 
devoid of a decided national basis. 

The German colonists live in more or less extensive vil- 
lages or colonies. The generations born in Russia have 
preserved the language, even dialect, habits, religion, and 
morals of their old country. Although the Czars Ivan III., 
IV., and Peter I. had recognized the advantage of colonizing 
the country by a steady, hardy, and intelligent race of thrifty 
farmers like the German peasants, it was principally Catha- 
rina II., who first conceived the idea of colonizing the 
greater part of Russia on a large scale. Her intention was 
crowned with success as regards the populating of the steppes, 



108 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



but with the exception of the districts of Tanrida and Kherson, 
the German colonists had not that moral influence on the 
native population which the high-minded Empress so ardently 
desired. In December, 1762, an Imperial Manifesto was sent 
forth into all countries inviting foreigners (except Jews) to 
come and settle in Russia. They were to become Russian 
subjects, and the Government undertook to furnish the means 
for their comfortable settlement. The following were the 
rights and privileges granted them : — 

1 st. Free religious exercise, permission to build churches, 
and to have their own special clergy, who however had 
not to attempt proselytism except in the case of 
Mohammedans. 

2nd. They were to be exempt from all taxes for thirty 
years. 

3rd. The colonies were to have the right to their own 
administration and parish laws, provided the latter 
did not interfere with those of the country. 

4th. They were to be free for ever from all military 
service. 

By all accounts, it seems that the last convention is now 
in great jeopardy of becoming a dead letter, as not only all 
German colonists, but even the Mennonites, a sect to whom 
all warlike work is an abomination and strictly interdicted 
by their religion, are henceforth to be subjected to the new 
Military Law, according to which every Russian subject must 
serve his country (be he prince or beggar). 

It is said that the Mennonites and many German colonists 
even have resolved to leave the country rather than submit 
to the infringement of their privileges. The future 
will show the result. It is certainly a difficult matter to 
defend the abolition of an old right; but it is also well 
known, that a great lapse of time will bring about circum- 
stances which might render the strict execution of ancient 
laws, particularly wdien they refer but to a small community, 



GEEMAN COLONISTS. 



109 



a matter of peculiar and pungent irksomeness to the rest of 
the nation, and seriously interfere with the carrying out of 
so great and practical a law as the new military regulations. 
The German colonists, if they will only patiently and fairly 
consider the matter, cannot but come to the conclusion, that 
what is fair to one portion of the public must be so also to 
the other. They have had upwards of a hundred years of 
peace and prosperity. Most of them had been of the poorest 
class of peasants in their own country. Owing to the fine 
climate of South Kussia and the great encouragement they 
have always experienced at the hands of the Government, 
they have mostly become wealthy, have large and comfort- 
able houses and outbuildings, extensive fields, cattle, horses, 
and money at their bankers'. If the spirit of fairness and 
equity be not sufficiently strong to make them submit 
to a regulation which exempts none of their fellow sub- 
jects, whatever may be their rank, surely gratitude for 
many benefits received ought to press down the scale. Be- 
sides the colonies of Saratov — of which that of Sarepta (a 
settlement of the Moravian Brethren, situated at a distance 
of fifteen miles from Tsaritsin, on the Volga,) is the most 
known and endowed with exceptional privileges — colonies 
were founded under Catharina, i.e., in the Baltic provinces 
and the governments of Tchernigov (1766), in those of Vo- 
ronezh and St. Petersburg (1767), in New Eussia, in the 
government of Yekaterinoslav, where the Prussian Mennonites, 
a sect distinguished for their morality and industrious, peaceful 
habits, founded several settlements. Emigration and coloni- 
zation to and in Kussia continued during the succeeding 
reign, Odessa and Theodosia forming the centres of the Ger- 
man colonies in South Bussia. New Mennonite colonies were 
established in Taurida ; Bessarabia and Poland also received 
a large share of German colonists. Between 1817-18 the 
Wurtemberg emigrants settled in Georgia. The Njemetzki 
Colonja, or German colony of Tiflis, is one of the richest, 
and forms almost the finest quarter of the town. The mem- 
bers of this settlement are all wealthy. 



110 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The colonists are distributed throughout Russia in the 



following manner : — 

Souls. 

In the Government of St. Petersburg 4,000 

„ Livonia (near Vendeu) . . . . 300 

„ ,, Tchernigov (at Krolevets, 2 colonies) . 800 

,, „ Voronezh (1 colony) .... 1,000 

„ „ Saratov 110,000 

„ „ Samara . 80,000 

„ Yekaterinoslav 20,000 

„ ,, Kherson 50,000 

„ Taurida 27,000 

„ „ Bessarabia 22,000* 

„ Orenburg . . . . . 1,500 

„ Stavropol 1,000 

„ Grouzia 3,000 

On the rivers Kuban and Terek ...... 500 



The German colonies are distinguished by their appearance 
alone from all other inhabited places of the country around. 
The villages are surrounded by enclosures, although each 
house is built separate from that of its neighbour. The 
houses are the precise copy of those of the native German 
village. The colonist's dress and utensils have remained 
the same, with the exception of the sheep-skin coat of 
winter, which the rigorous climate has made him adopt. 
His language betrays the primitive dialect, although strongly 
interlarded with Russian words. As already stated, the 
greater part of the German colonists are in easy circum- 
stances, many of them even very rich. One of the Tauridian 
German sheep farmers, Fein, who died in 1866, and with 
whom the writer was well acquainted, left a princely fortune, 
part of which consisted in about 330,000 sheep. The colonists 
have the great and undeniable merit of being the first 
to introduce into Russia the principles of good agriculture 
and thrift. The class of the better artizans in Russia consist 
for the greater part of Germans. 

THE SWEDES. 

In type, physical and moral conditions, they closely 
resemble the German. Their number is about 200,000: 



GREEKS. 



11L 



viz., 185,000, who speak three different dialects, are settled 
in Finland ; in St. Petersburg, 8000 ; in Esthonia, 6000 ; in 
Livonia, 400 ; and in Kherson, 300. They hardly differ at all 
from the inhabitants of the mother country. They are fair 
of complexion and strongly built; their women slender, 
active, vigorous, and pretty. The Swedes are very laborious, 
and earn a decent livelihood by breeding cattle, hunting, 
fishing, navigation, and agriculture. Their little roan horses 
are in high request in Russia. The Swedes of St. Peters- 
burg are almost exclusively merchants or employers of 
the administration of the capital itself. M. Russwurm, of 
Hapsal, in his book " Eibofolke," says of them : " The 
Swedes of the Esthonian coasts, especially those of Runoe, 
Rogoe, and Odinsholm, are fair, fresh-coloured, and well 
made ; they are strong, active, patient, and capable of sup- 
porting dangers and the rudest toil. Their countrymen, 
who are settled on the rivers, call them i Eibofolke,' or 
inhabitants of the islands ; the Esthonians designate them 
by the name of i Rootsi-zahvass.' " 

M. Kunik mentions them in the following terms : — " To 
obtain a true idea of the vivacity of the old Normans, and 
of their physical strength at the time of Rurik, one must 
make the acquaintance of the < Eibofolke.' " With regard 
to Russian ethnography, they deserve particular attention. 
Their salient virtues are their honesty, and considerate and 
reflective character. Unfortunately, however, they are still 
very superstitious. 

THE GREEKS. 

They number about 60,000 souls ; of which, in the govern- 
ment of Yekaterinoslav, 33,000; in Bessarabia, 3000; in 
Kherson, 3500; in Taurida, 5000; in Tchernigov, 2000; in 
Podolia, 200 ; in Trans-Caucasia, 5000 ; besides a small 
number on the coasts of Southern Crimea and at Astrakhan. 
Many merchants of their nation are established at St. 
Petersburg and Odessa ; they are almost all very wealthy, 



112 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



and living in a most luxurious style. In Bessarabia exists a 
settlement of about 1000 Arnaouts. 

THE HINDOOS. 

A small number of this people inhabit Astrakhan and 
some points on the Caspian coasts, and are engaged in trade. 
At Baku is living a little company of fire- worshippers. In 
the neighbourhood of the " eternal fires of Baku " stands a 
kind of temple, in which these people perform their nocturnal 
rites, a wretched parody on the doctrine of Tserdoucht. The 
sight of the old shrunk figures stalking about in the light 
of those spontaneous flames, like so many ambulating 
phantoms, macerating their nearly naked and extenuated 
frames, offers one of the most singular and interesting 
spectacles that the world can produce. 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE POPULATIONS OF THE CAUCASUS. 

The territory of the Caucasus comprises about 8000 square 
miles, with a population of 4 million souls, 1,750,000 of 
which are Christians, and 2,250,000 Mohammedans. The 
Caucasian nations, properly so called, may be classified 
as follows: viz. — 530,000 Georgians, 650,000 Lesghians, 
150,000 Kistes (Tchetchents), and 500,000 Tcherkess. 

The Iranian race is represented by 30,000 Ossets, 18,000 
Persians, 11,000 Kourdhs, and 365,000 Armenians. There 
are, moreover, 900,000 Tartars, 32,000 Kalmuks (in the 
government of Stavropol), 11,000 Jews, 5000 Greeks, 5000 
Germans, and 3000 Bohemians or gipsies. The Russian 
population (including the Cossacks) amounts to 760,000 
souls. 

Owing to the continual wars and political disturbances, 
to the invasions and dominations of barbarous tribes, which 
for centuries devastated the country, decimated the people, 
and destroyed every germ of civilization that from time to 
time had ventured to the surface, the people are now just 
as poor and backward in cultivation, as the magnificent 
country they inhabit is rich and profuse in natural resources. 

THE TRIBES OF THE KHAETLE RACE. 

They inhabit the country between the Black Sea coast 
and the junction of the Kour and Alazan rivers, the Great 
Caucasian range, and that of Adjara, or the Little Caucasus. 
The Khartle race is represented by about 30 tribes, the 



114 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



most important of which, at the present time, are the 
Imerethians,Mingrelians, Gourians, Ssuanes, Pshavs,Toushes, 
Khevsours, bnt, above all, the Georgians and Grouzinians. 
On the Turkish portion of the Black Sea-shore live the 
Lazes, a tribe of savage brigand mountaineers. 

Russia has been for many years in amicable correspond- 
ence with the Cakheti and Karthli country, the inhabitants 
of which, once so powerful and wealthy, were their co- 
religionists. Timoor's victories brought all these tribes 
under the oppressive yoke of the Turks and Persians about 
the year 1400. They were, besides, exposed to the constant 
attacks of the half-savage bands of the Lesghi from Daghestan. 
At the time of the collapse of the Byzantine empire, the 
Grouzinians implored Russia for help. In 1783 Catharina II. 
took them under her protection. In 1801 the Grouzinians, 
in 1803 the Mingrelians, in 1804 the Imerethians, and in 
1810 the Gourians, became formally annexed by Russia. 
Ssuanethi only recently followed the above tribes. 

The Georgians pretend to a descent from Karthlos, the 
great-grandson of Japhet, and younger brother of Hark, or 
Haos, the founder of Armenia. The Armenians call them 
"Virk" (plur. of "Vir," from Yer, above). With the 
Persians they go by the appellation of Kourdji, or Gourdji 
(after the River Kour — from Kyros or Cyrus). Georgia is 
divided into the following parts : — 

1. Aghovank, Aghovami, or Albania, situated on the 

south-eastern slope of the Caucasian range. The 
Albanian people trace their descent to the Armenian 
patriachs. 

2. Cakheti, comprising the present districts of Telav and 

Signakh, on the banks of the Alazan. The name 
Cakheti is derived from Cakhos, one of the eight sons 
of Karthlos. 

3. Somkhethi, which since 1100 has always formed part 

of Georgia. 



POPULATION OF THE CAUCASUS. 



115 



4. Sanitzkke, or Saatabago since the establishment of the 

Georgian Atabeks during the twelfth century. 

5. Imerethia, which owes its name to its situation "beyond" 

the Mount Likh, as " Imier " signifies beyond. 

6. Akkal-Tzikke, occupying the south-eastern extremity 

of the government of Kutais, was ceded to Russia by 
the Turks in 1829. This tribe represents the purest 
Georgian blood. 

7. Abkhazia (Aphshegh of the Armenians, and Apsilia of 

the Byzantines). Its real name is Abjib, signifying 
" half," or the part situated in the middle. 

8. Mingrelia (Arm., Egher ; Georg., Egrisi) takes its 

name from Egros, brother of Karthlos. 

9. Gouria, between the rivers Rion and Tchorokh. (Deri- 

vation of name not as yet discovered.) 

From the time of David II. to the invasion of the Mongols 
all the tribes of the Karabagh, Shirvan, and Daghestan 
were tributaries of the Georgian monarchs. Even Trebizond 
fell before the arms of the great Queen Thamar. During 
the eighteenth century all the country between the Lars and 
Araxes obeyed the valiant and restless Heraclius II. 

In the year 302, before Christ, Pharnavaz, governor of 
Mtzkhetha (contemporary of Alexander the Great), founded 
the kingdom of Georgia. To him has been attributed 
the compilation of the Georgian alphabet, although the 
Armenians maintain that one of their own teachers, Mezrob, 
had been its author. 

The fact is, that the Georgians possess two different kinds 
of writing, i.e., one with round letters, very similar in cha- 
racter to those of the Zends and Pehlvis, the other resembling 
the Armenian characters. A double origin is therefore 
highly probable. 

The Georgians became Christians about the year 325. 
Eusthades, Patriarch of Antioch, baptized the people without 
meeting with any resistance. Since 596 the Georgian Church 
has been a branch of the orthodox Greek Church. At the 

i 2 



116 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



end of last century it was still dependent on the Patriarch of 
Antioch, but stands now under the Sacred Synod of St. 
Petersburg. 

During the seventh century Georgia fell into a de- 
plorable state of abasement. The wars of Heraclius and 
the everlasting struggle against the Mohammedans impo- 
verished and ruined the country. From the time of its 
foundation it was constantly disquieted and convulsed by 
the contentions between the different dynasties, who alter- 
nately had the direction of the kingdom's affairs. Their 
reigns fall into the following periods : — 

The Karthlosides or Pharnavazides reigned from 302 to 
164 before Christ, and from 2 before to 186 after Christ. 
The Nebrothides governed from 162 to 93 and from 33 to 3 
before Christ ; the Arsacides from 93 to 33 before Christ, 
and from 186 to 265 after our Lord; the Khosroides from 
625 to 570 and from 619 to 786 ; the Bagratides at last from 
575 to 619 and from 787 to 1801. 

In the eighth century the Georgians were called upon to 
defend their country against a terrible Arab invasion. The 
Khazar wars preceded the second period of the Bagratides 
(Ashot the First and Bagrat L). At the end of the tenth 
century Bagrat III. , the adopted son of Bagrat the Imbecile, 
made himself sole lord and sovereign of the United King- 
dom of Aphkhazo-Karthli. With his dynasty commenced 
the vigorous development of political power, learning, and 
taste for arts and science. He took Iberia, joined Cakhethi 
to his dominions, and made himself master of all the terri- 
tory between Aphkhazia and the Caspian Sea, with the 
exception of the country of the Orbelians. Under his reign 
the Iberian convent of Mount Athos became distinguished 
for its learned interpretation of the sacred Scriptures and the 
most valuable productions of Greek theology. After Bagrat 
IV., who, allied to the Greeks, successfully fought the Turks, 
the country was troubled by constant acts of brigandage and 
devastated by the Seldjoukites. But a new era commenced in 
1089, when David II. ? who claimed descent from the Pro- 



GROUZIXIANS. 



117 



phet David, ascended the throne. His reign lasted till 1125, 
and proved one of the most glorious Georgia had ever seen. 
He was called by his people the Restorer and King of Kings. 
He called 40,000 warriors from the northern slope of the 
Caucasian range, and assigned them land in Georgia, where 
they settled. Great was the preponderance exercised by 
Georgia during the twelfth century, principally in conse- 
quence of the Crusades, which weakened the power of the 
Moslem. This happy state of things was, however, com- 
pletely upset by the invasion of the Mongols. The last 
victories of Georgia it owed to its great Queen Thamar 
(1184 — 1212). Her capital was Tiflis (name analogous with 
Toplitz, both owing their names to their mineral waters). 
It was founded in 469, in 853 taken by the Arabs, then 
by the Turks, who held it till 1122, when it came again 
into the possession of its natural lords. Its most bril- 
liant period was the reign of Thamar. She spread the 
gospel of Jesus Christ throughout the Caucasus, favoured 
arts and science, stimulated literary life to most remarkable 
productions, and decreed new laws. In 1220 the Mongols 
fell into the country, ravaged it, and established them- 
selves there completely in 1236. At the end of the same 
century the famous conqueror Timoor entered Georgia six 
times, and utterly destroyed Tiflis. The ruin and deso- 
lation which had followed the steps of that scourge of Eastern 
Europe and Asia, were effaced by Alexander (1414 — 1442), 
who built up the towns, restored the churches, and re-estab- 
lished the unity of his country. 

THE KARTHLE (gROUZINIANS). 

They inhabit the government of Tiflis. Their province is 
divided into two parts, i.e., Grouzia and Cakheti. The 
Turks had possession of the former from 1722 till 1735, 
when they were expelled by Nadir Shah, who confided the 
government to a Bagratide, Teimourez, who reigned over it 
under Persian sovereignty. His son Heraclius united both 
kingdoms. Cakheti was under Persian rule from 1615 to 



118 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



1703, and from 1675 till 1750 her kings, even those of the 
Bagratide family were Mussulmans. Their last king Giorgi 
ceded the land to Russia. The Cakheti is the Eldorado of 
the Caucasus. Its climate is delicious, its soil most fertile 
and of prodigious yield under the ancient system of canali- 
zation. The country is wonderfully picturesque, and studded 
with mementos of former civilization. It may be said to 
consist of one compact system of gardens, orchards, and 
vineyards. The wine is of splendid quality, although its 
culture is of the most primitive description. 

The type of the people resembles thai of the Georgians, 
and may rank with the most beautiful of the earth. Boden- 
stedt says : — " Everywhere in Grouzia one sees men of tall and 
vigorous frames, and women of slender, elegant figures, regu- 
lar, distinguished features, and large, finely-cut eyes ; but in 
vain one looks in either sex for that noble beauty, which is 
found only amongst nations of advanced civilization, where the 
eyes are the unerring reflectors of the exalted sensations of 
the mind and heart. The beauty of the female form is gene- 
rally more developed than that of the face, the charm of 
which passes off very soon. The physical difference between 
the Georgian and the European lady is also conspicuous in 
their style of dressing. The effect of the charm of the 
European lady is enhanced by closer acquaintance. The 
most insignificant physical appearance frequently proves 
captivating by the mutely-eloquent glance, the fine expres- 
sion of the mouth, and by the interesting play of the features. 
A simple attire pleases all the more, as one enters into a 
detailed inspection of its delicate elegance and exquisite 
purity. The imjDression one experiences in the presence of a 
Georgian lady is precisely the reverse. Their exterior is 
brilliant, but loses under close examination. "When out 
walking, they wear the £ tchadra,' a sort of veil, which enve- 
lops the whole person, and which they know how to dispose 
around them, so as to display the fine proportions of the 
handsome, and to hide the defects of the ugly. The dress 
consists sometimes of a short, bright-coloured sarafan, at 



GROUZINIANS. 



119 



others of a long robe, cut out on the bosom so as to show a 
bodice of light colour underneath, which is generally most 
richly and artistically embroidered. The red silk pantaloons 
are hemmed with gold, and most charmingly set off a little 
foot in its tiny, high-heeled slipper of Persian morocco. 
The women wear also a light- coloured handkerchief, slung 
(in the form of a cross) round their heads — covering part 
of the forehead, it serves to retain a gauze veil, falling back 
and partly hiding the thick plaits of their long and dark 
hair. There is not a more melancholy spectacle in the world 
than an old Georgian woman, who is more like a hag than 
anything else. While the young beauty modestly hides 
beneath the tchadra, old age uncovers a bosom, that ought to 
be consigned to everlasting seclusion." 

The Grouzinians are an aristocratic and feudal people, 
born warriors, brave soldiers, and excellent riders, but not 
particularly available for European tactics. They are amiable 
and hospitable, but mostly ignorant and uncommunicative, 
and too proud and warlike to love trade and industry. The 
Armenians are to them what the Jews are to the Poles : they 
hate and despise them, but cannot do without them. They 
are not gifted by superior intelligence, which is probably 
the result of their excessive consumption of wine. The 
greater portion of the nobility hardly know more than to 
read and write, but the lower classes do not even know that. 
Their amusements are enjoyed in the open air ; they consist 
principally of music and dancing, especially with the female 
sex. Their musical instruments are the " zourna" (a flute), 
and the " tchoungour" (an instrument of two metal strings). 
Their songs are monotonous. The subject is mostly of an 
heroic nature, and descriptive of events of the past. The 
dance of the men is wild, and expressive of the audacious 
and warlike spirit of the Grouzinians. That of the young 
girls is grave, slow, never accompanied by jumping move- 
ments, but distinguished by graceful attitudes. The favourite 
and also the most interesting dance is the " lesghinka, min- 
grelka, or abkhazka." It gracefully expresses longing, pur- 



J20 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



suit, and repulse, always followed by consent. This dance 
is peculiar to the whole of the Caucasus. 

THE IMEKETHIANS. 

They number about 150,000 souls. The primitive charac- 
ter of this people, one of the most beautiful of the earth, has 
physically and morally suffered under the influence of 
Turkish despotism, which has brought about the decay of 
the church and the demoralization of the government and 
nobility. Under these circumstances the Russian domination 
is the greatest blessing that could have befallen the country, 
as it has abolished slavery and procured security to person 
and property. The nobles cannot any longer with numerous 
followers ride about the country, take possession of a house, 
and eat up in one week the stores which would have lasted 
the family for a whole year. The Imerethian is very hos- 
pitable, but his morals are of a very low standard. He 
is intemperate and given to falsehood, and other vices. 
Some of the nobles can decipher Russian, but few of them 
know how to read their own language. 

THE MINGKELIANS. 

They inhabit the most western district of Trans- Caucasia, 
between the Rivers Ingour, Rion, and the Black Sea, to the 
number of about 50,000 souls. 

The Mingrelian is grave and taciturn. Of naturally pale 
complexion, which is heightened by the yellowish colour of 
his bashlik (hood), he seems sickly, though perhaps very 
healthy and vigorous ; mute and without energy, albeit brave 
and sensitive in point of honour, rude and little sociable, 
though in reality affable and hospitable. Only an intimate 
acquaintance can give a correct idea of his character. He is 
industrious and more powerful than the Grouzinian. The 
Mingrelian dialect is very soft and the most sonorous of all 
the Georgian tongues. Never having been written, it is of 
course subject to constant changes. 



GOURIANS AND SSUANES. 



121 



THE GOURIANS. 

They count about 25,000 souls, and live on the most fer- 
tile land of Trans- Caucasia, between tbe Rion and the 
Turkish frontier. Their capital is Ozourgeth. They are 
perhaps the most beautiful of the Georgian or Karthle race. 
Their women are lovely, of imposing presence, fine com- 
plexion and distinguished features. Their soil, though 
never manured, yields two crops annually. The wheat sown 
in autumn is reaped in the April following. Maize and 
millet are then sown, and are ripe in September. The soil 
produces also tobacco of excellent quality. 

The Gourian rigorously adheres to his religion and customs. 
His movements are prompt and sure. He is proud of the 
splendour and excellence of his arms, always sober, and 
convinced of his own valour. His speech is high-flown, his 
expressions ever well chosen, and accompanied by assurances 
of devotion, which are, however, of far less significance in his, 
than in European mouths. He is endowed with much good 
sense. The two favourite games of this tribe are the 
"tamasha" (with balls) and the throwing of sticks. Their 
songs (chorus mostly) are variable and agreeable, some of 
them deserving of the interest of connoisseurs. They generally 
exhibit sudden changes from the slowest Adagio to the most 
rapid Allegro or Prestissimo. 



THE SSUANES (SVANETI OF THE RUSSIANS). 

Of all the Georgian tribes these inhabit the highest and 
most inaccessible valleys of the north-western Caucasus. 
Numerous and superb ruins of churches are found through- 
out their territory. Their country (Ssuanethi) is separated 
in the north from some small Tartar tribes by the principal 
Caucasian range. It is shut off from Abkhazia (Samurzak- 
han), from Mingrelia (Letchkhoum) and Imerethia (Radsha), 
in the south and west, by rocky mountains. It comprises 



122 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



three principal valleys formed by the Ingour and his affluent 
the Moulkze. 

The Ssuanes live in patriarchal style in large families, of 
which, generally, several congregate together for mutual 
defence. They possess but few horses. The country is 
healthy, therefore more populated. They live by agriculture 
(which is, however, difficult, owing to the nature of the 
country) by cattle breeding, and brigandage. The latter is, 
however, gradually disappearing. Their country produces 
saltpetre in great quantity. Their character is uncertain. 
The Ssuane is cowardly or brave, honest or robber according 
to circumstances. From early infancy accustomed to hard- 
ships, he possesses great strength and agility. His sobriety 
is of the strictest kind ; he is therefore extremely hardy and 
enduring. During the winter he hunts and passes his time 
in dancing and exercise of arms. His wife is bought, but 
if he cannot afford the money, he must carry her off by force. 
Not long ago he used to sell his daughters into slavery. 
The Ssuanes are nearly all fair and blue-eyed. Their hair is 
never cut and falls down the neck in long waves. They are 
very superstitious, and believe in dreams and prophecies. 
Fortune-tellers are much esteemed by them, and often 
manage to acquire great influence on the credulous minds of 
their countrymen. 

THE PSHAVS, TOUSHES, AND KHEVSOTJKS. 

These three tribes inhabit the north-eastern part of the 
government of Tiflis, where it approaches the snow line. 
They are the descendents of GeorgiaDS, who settled here for 
the purpose of defending their country (Cakheti) against the 
raids of the wild Lesghi, who, like famished wolves, ever 
hovered in the forests surrounding it. They have no written 
alphabet, but there is a kind of ancient Georgian dialect in 
use amongst them. They also speak modern Georgian, and 
the tongues of the Lesghi and Kistes, of which tribes several 
live on their territory. Their pronunciation is- harsh and 
embarrassed. They pretend to profess the Greek faith, but 



PSHAVS, TOUSHES, AND KHEVSOURS. 123 



they have in reality no idea of its dogmas or ceremonies. 
Superstition is their faith, and vengeance their law. Their 
exposed country, but principally the ruthless reign of Shah 
Abbas and its effects are probably the cause of their unculti- 
vated condition. That tyrant destroyed the churches built 
by Queen Thamar, killed the clergy, and forced whole 
villages to embrace Islamism, or drove them for shelter to 
the mountains. The Pshavs are savage and rude, and of 
intrepid courage, but nevertheless submissive and pacific 
The Khevsours are brigands, and hostile to civilized tribes. 
A school recently established in their country will probably 
tend to improve their character. They number about 6000 
souls. 

The Toushes during winter are driven with their cattle to 
distant pastures, generally to the land on the river Yora, a 
distance of 160 miles. They are distinguished by their fine 
figures, their loyalty and chivalrous sentiments. Their organi- 
zation is theocratic, and they count about 6000 heads. 
Their neighbours are the Kistes (Tchetchents), the Didos 
(Lesghi) and the Grouzinians (Cakhes). 

The Khevsours, numbering about 3000, have a democratic 
organization and live by the breeding of cattle. Numerous 
brooks traverse their country and are ingeniously utilized by 
them for mills driven by turbines. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



THE LESGHIS OB. DIDOS. 

They are probably of Kiste or Tchetchents origin, and 
inhabit the eastern slope of the Caucasus and Daghestan, a 
mountainous country descending to the Caspian Sea. Their 
numerous tribes speak four principal tongues, of which the 
most commonly used is the Avarian dialect. On the coasts 
and lower parts, the Tartar and Persian languages are spoken, 
their literary language being Arab, which is, however, 
only known to the Moullahs. During the last twenty years 
the Lesghi allied to the Tchetchents formed a group, fiercely 
opposed to the other Caucasian nations. This opposition 
was not only directed against Christians, but also against the 
Tcherkess and Mohammedan tribes inhabiting the north- 
western part of the Caucasus. They were the principal 
partizans of Schamyl, and distinguished by their religious 
fanaticism and democratic organization. The most interest- 
ing epoch in the history of Daghestan commences with the 
year 1843, when that country became the theatre of most 
romantic wars and combats. 

In 1596, u e., during the reign of Fedor Ivanovitch, the 
last scion of Kurik, the Russians invaded Daghestan for the 
purpose of aiding the Grouzinians against the Turks, but 
they abandoned the country again in the year 1604. 

In 1722 Peter the Great, marching along the west coast 
of the Caspian Sea, invaded Daghestan. Tarki and Baku 
submitted to the Czar, and received a Russian governor and 
garrisons. The Empress Anna, in 1735, restored those 



THE LESGHIS. 



125 



provinces again to Persia. In 1786 the Skanikhal of Tarki 
voluntarily submittal to Russia, and soon after also the 
Khan of Mekktoula. 

In 1806 the Khanates of Kouba and Baku, in 1813 those 
of Derbent, Kurakh, Baku (Tartar), Talych (Persian), 
Sheki, Skirvan, and Karabagh, were re-united and for- 
mally ceded to Russia. In 1819 the free tribes of Akouska, 
Surghia, Routta, and Koubatsha, voluntarily acknowledged 
Russian supremacy. Avaria, which had been conquered al- 
ready in the year 1803, rebelled against the Russian rule in 
1818, when General Yermolov completely procured their 
subjection, together with that of the Koumyks. Prince 
Mahatov, in 1820, conquered the most important military 
locality of Daghestan, viz., the Khanate of Kazi-Koumoukh. 
Nearly the whole of Daghestan had passed thus into Russian 
hands, who owed their easy conquest to the disunity of the 
tribes. The peaceful calm of 1824, however, resembled the 
silence of the elements preceding a storm; for about that 
time the religious democratic doctrines of the fanatic Kazi- 
Moullah, first of all promulgated at Ghimri, began to spread 
themselves over Daghestan and Tchetchnia. These doc- 
trines, known by the name of Muridism, under the mantle 
of religion, brought about an important political reform, 
founded on democratic principles. The Muridism com- 
pletely destroyed all authority of the Khans, whom the 
Russian government had retained and confirmed. Seeing 
their own rule in jeopardy, they promptly took preventive 
measures, and thus opened the twenty years' war of Daghestan 
and Tchetchnia, which furnished astounding proofs of devo- 
tion, self-denial, and heroic bravery on the part of the 
Caucasians. The word " Murid " signifies a person desirous 
of walking in the way of the truth. It was simply a desig- 
nation given to those who gathered around the " Murshids," 
or teachers of the way of truth ; a doctrine which, in the 
case of these mountaineers, referred more to political than 
to religious principles. The Koran consists of three parts : 
viz., the "Shariat," or the book of civil laws; the "Tarikat" 



126 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



(Muridism), or book of moral laws ; and the " Kharikat," 
or account of the religious revelations made to the Prophet, 
and which, in Mussulman eyes, form the highest degree of 
religious faith. The Mohammedans consider the public and 
private life of man fixed by the " Shariat," to the exclusion 
of all other legislation. Practically, this primitive law 
suffers many transgressions, so that the " Tarikat " (the 
Muridism, or all the clergy subjected to the immovable law) 
has but developed and perfected the doctrine. As the inter- 
preters of the Tarikat can only be ecclesiastics, the Shariat 
gives to the clergy an abstruse power over the people. The 
Muridism, at its commencement, exercised no influence over 
the tribes ; and only after it had caused the fall of the 
Tartar Khans and aristocracy, it assumed a power which has 
astonished the world, for it had roused the spirit of liberty, 
so keen in the otherwise rude and savage breast of the 
mountaineer. At the end of the last century lived at 
Ghimri, a village of the Koissoubou tribe, a certain Ismail, 
who had come from Ghidatl, and whose only son, Mahoma, 
had married Baghi-Sultane, a girl from Ghimri. This 
Ismail, who was a learned man (according to Mohammedan 
ideas), and intimately acquainted with the character and 
customs of the moutaineers, was subsequently made adjunct 
to the khadi of the tribe of Karanai, to whom he had gone. 
About 1785 a son was born to Mahoma, at whose birth 
supernatural phenomena were said to have taken place. He 
was called after his father. This child was Kazi-Moullah, who 
at a later period became so celebrated, and who was called 
by the mountaineers Moullah-Mohammed (Kazi signifies an 
individual carrying on a sacred war). At the age of ten 
Kazi-Moullah, or Moullah-Mohammed, went to his grand- 
father at Karanai, under whose direction he seriously studied 
the Arabic language and the Koran. Not satisfied with the 
extent of his learning, he went to Arakany, to the learned 
Said-Effendi, who subsequently became the favourite of 
General Yermolov. But the liberalism of that teacher dis- 
pleased him quite as much as the latter disliked the reserved 



THE LESGHI, KAZI-MOULLAH. 



127 



character and somewhat theatrical manner of Kazi-Moullah. 
His term passed with Saicl-Effendi finished the oral instruc- 
tion of the future apostle of the Djikhad (war against the 
Unfaithful). He soon acquired influence with the Kabar- 
cliaDs and the ISTogai. He was twice married, but in each case 
separated from the brides on the first day on account of 
their inability to hold their tongues. He then married the 
handsome Patimate of Ghimri, who submitted to the trial 
of silence. The appearance and character of Kazi-Moullah, 
a true Oriental in the full sense of the word, then already 
indicated his future career. He was a most remarkable 
personage — ambitious, calm, serious, cold, and cruel. 

The first ideas of Muridism were brought into the country 
by Moullah-Mahomet (not to be confounded with Kazi- 
Moullah). He embraced that doctrine with the most intense 
ardour, and retired into the mountain solitudes to pray and 
fast. In this manner he soon attracted the attention of the 
" Kurines." Without pursuing any political object, he con- 
tented himself with playing the part of a Murshid, although 
his preaching excited the Kurines against the Russians. 
Their cry of " Kazavat ! Kazavat ! Mohammedams, the time 
of the Kazavat has come ! " resounded in every valley, in 
every homestead of Daghestan. The numbers of the fanatics 
soon increased to a most formidable figure, especially after 
they had been joined by Kazi-Moullah (1825). General 
Yermolov began to get alarmed, but was kept quiet by the 
Chief of the Kuragh, Asslan-Khan, and by the disappear- 
ance of Moullah-Mahomet. — All of a sudden Kazi-Moullah 
arose, a new • and more powerful teacher and prophet, bent 
on a complete reform of religious, social, and political 
affairs. His severity regarding intemperance, the great vice 
of his people, drew upon him the animosity of the Moullahs. 
He therefore went to the Karadakh, from which place the 
learned Moslems exercised the greatest authority over Dag- 
hestan; and when he returned from there he had with 
him three other zealous missionaries, one of whom was 
" Schainyl." He at once renewed his attack on the vice of 



128 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



drunkenness j by decreeing a punishment of forty strokes of 
the rod, which he and his coadjutors underwent first of all, 
just as if they had been guilty of that vice themselves. 
Kazi-Moullah soon managed to effect a complete cure 
amongst his people, and his doctrine spread with marvellous 
rapidity. His immediate disciples took the name of Murids. 
At the end of 1829, on the return of the Russian army 
from a successful campaign against Persia, Daghestan was 
already filled with the elements of a general conflagration. 
Koissoubou, Goumbet, Andia, and other small tribes on the 
Koissou-Andi, as well as the Koissou of Avaria, half Targi, 
and all the Avarian villages except the Khounzakh, obeyed 
Kazi-Moullah, who then carried a scheme in his head for 
uniting the tribes for a march against Constantinople. He 
openly preached war against Russia, and against all who 
did not strictly obey the law of the Shariat, and at once 
began the sanguinary campaign of Daghestan. Killed at 
the storming of Ghimri, in 1832, his death created profound 
sensation. His body had been found, grasping his beard 
with one hand, while the other was stretched forth towards 
heaven ; a circumstance which the fanatical multitude inter- 
preted as an incentive to prolong the war unto death. 
Before long a successor of Kazi-Moullah, similar in prin- 
ciples and zeal, an active, violent, intrepid, and audacious 
leader, was found in Hamzat-Bek, of Avaria. Member of 
a good family, he, with the aid of Asslan Khan of Kurim, 
upset the Khans of Avaria. He was assassinated in 1834 
by the brother of Khadji-Mourad, who afterwards became 
the well-known Murid chief. The fall of the Khans had 
united most of the tribes. At the first news of Hamzat- 
Bek's death, Schamyl, with 200 devoted Murids, burst into 
the Aoiil (village) of Novo-Gotsatl, confiscated the treasure 
of Hamzat-Bek, declared himself his successor, and was 
universally recognised as " imam" 

Schamyl (Schamil, Chamouil, or Samuel) was born at 
Ghimri about 1799. His father was a poor shepherd of the 
name of Dinckavu. His infancy was spent in poverty ; he 



SCHAMYL. 



129 



then became pedlar, travelling fishmonger, then a singer in 
wine-houses, juggler, and what not ; but, gifted with much 
spirit and force of character, he joined Kazi-Moullah, and 
began to play his inspired part. Less religious than Kazi- 
Moullah, less impetuous than Hamzat-Bek, Schamyl sur- 
passed both by his spirit, perseverance, quick-sightedness, 
and his ability of seizing the right moment for his daring- 
deeds. Already, under Hamzat-Bek, he had occupied a very 
high position. In 1837 he was repeatedly beaten by the 
Russians, who, in 1839, took Akhoulgo, a fortress situated 
on an inaccessible rock. His flight from the ruin was con- 
sidered a miracle. Daghestan having become untenable for 
him, he made Tchetchnia his land of refuge and theatre of 
action by taking up his residence at Dargo, in Itchkeria, on 
the mountains of Audi. In 1842 he reigned over 130,000 
families (600,000 souls) of Daghestan, and 35,000 families 
of the Tchetchents living to the north of the Andi moun- 
tains. This population, under his command, formed a com- 
pact military body. Every man, from the age of sixteen to 
sixty had to serve. He paid particular attention to his 
cavalry, and had a body-guard of 600 picked, unmarried 
Murids, whose business it was also, to watch over the 
political and religious opinions of the people, and who were 
consequently much feared. He also introduced a new system 
of taxes, and made the people believe that, he was in con- 
stant correspondence with Turkey and the Pasha of Egypt. 
He managed to make the people look upon him as a man 
living under a particular and divine dispensation by his 
miraculous escapes, long retreats, prayers, and frequent 
fasts. His policy was somewhat Macchiavellian ; for he 
held the Lesghis and Tchetchents in mutual dependence. 
He was a true genius, who on a different field would 
doubtless have become one of the most important historical 
personages. 

In 1843 the Russians opened the campaign with superior 
numbers, and altogether different tactics. - The year 1845 
saw the taking of Dargo, Schamyl's residence ; but, although 

K 



130 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



a fine feat of arms, it had no immediate result, inasmuch as 
Schamyl at once transferred the seat of his power to Veden, 
a fortress in the neighbourhood of Dargo. His authority in 
Daghestan had been much impaired since 1848 ; he there- 
fore made Tchetchnia the theatre of war, which it remained 
till the year 1859, when it fell into the power of the 
Eussians. During the Crimean war Schamyl had remained 
quiet ; but when Prince Bariatinsky had been appointed 
governor of the Caucasus, it soon became known to Schamyl, 
that he displayed great energy in preparations for carrying 
the principal scene of military operations into the very heart 
of Daghestan and Tchetchnia. Schamyl saw himself reduced 
to an ever-narrowing territory ; till at last, forsaken by the 
Lesghi, and shut up in G-ounib (in Andalat), he surrendered 
to the Prince, after a most heroic defence, on the 25th 
August, 1859. The Emperor Alexander honoured the old 
hero by proofs of the highest consideration, and assigned 
to him and his family the town of Kalouga for a residence. 
That magnanimous Prince was deeply moved on beholding 
Schamyl for the first time, and showed his admiration 
for the brave and able leader of men by a sympathetic 
embrace. 

The Lesghi number about 650,000 souls. They are divided 
into many tribes, of which the Avarians are the most im- 
portant, awakening particular interest by the deviation of 
their language from those of all the rest, by the singularity 
of their customs and their brilliant deeds of bravery. They 
live in about fifty aouls. 

If the character of the Lesghi is distinguished by several 
fine qualities, it is not without an equal number of bad ones. 
They are brave, active, and persevering ; can perform extra- 
ordinary marches in an incredibly small space of time, yet 
they are vindictive in the extreme, and delight in brigandage. 
The Lesghi's revengeful passions derive a moral support 
from his religion and the customs of his country. Sanguinary 
revenge extends not only to individuals, but to whole 
villages and tribes. The murderer rarely remains in his 



THE LESGHIS. 



131 



village, but takes refuge with another tribe. The Lesghi 
are hospitable, but after their own manner, They hold 
hosjntality sacred, even in the case of Russian soldiers and 
other enemies ; but they hope to obtain presents, and with 
a little money one can buy from them all one may wish for. 
They are addicted to drunkenness and excessive smoking. 
The men generally lounge about under the open sky, sleep- 
ing or chatting, and listening to news, of which they are 
excessively greedy. The position of their women is a truly 
unhappy one. They are looked upon as a kind of domestic 
animal, but treated worse than the horses. They and the 
donkeys carry the corn home from the fields, make the hay, 
house it, look to the horses, bake the bread, spin and weave 
the material for their clothes, prepare the dung for the soil, 
or make it into bricks for fuel. They soon age under this 
treatment, and are then still more despised. One rarely 
meets . with a handsome woman in Daghestan, they are all 
small and bent. Only the wives of the Beks show some 
good looks. Bigamy is scarce amongst the Lesghi, but 
only because the second wife must be paid for as well as the 
first. Divorces are easy and simple ; and after three months 
a woman may re-marry. Transgressions of chastity are 
seldom heard of. 

The Lesghi is very abstemious as regards solid food. A 
moderately sized piece of his heavy indigestible bread with 
mutton fat taken in the morning lasts him throughout the 
whole day ; but he is, nevertheless, exceedingly strong and 
hardy. Badly fed, wretchedly clad, and barefooted, he knows 
neither fatigue nor maladies. Although not particular about 
their dress, their houses are kept very clean. They are keen- 
sighted and of sound judgment ; and therefore, from a mili- 
tary point of view, superior to the Tchetchents. In the 
attack they are less impetuous and rapid than the last, but 
more resolute and steadfast. 

In the eastern and less hilly part of Daghestan, where 
their territory approaches the Caspian Sea, the Tartar 
element has exercised a great influence on the Lesghi. 



CHAPTEE XIV. 



THE KISTES OR TCHETCHENTS, 

Who go also by the appellation of Mitsdjeghis, Mitchikistes, 
according to tribes, call themselves by the generic name of 
Nakhtche* (people). The Russians haye given them the name 
Tcketchents, after their ancient aoul " Grand-Tchetchen," on 
the Argoun. There are twenty-one tribes of them, speaking 
more or less varied idioms, but also a dialect common to 
them all. This dialect shows no analogy with any other 
Caucasian language, with the exception perhaps of the Lesghi 
idiom. They have no literary language, and are Mohamme- 
dans. Amongst the Ingoushes and other neighbours exist 
still some traces of Christianity, consisting in ruins of ancient 
churches and a great number of sacred vessels, which testify 
to the preaching of Christ's gospel amongst these people. 

The territory of Tchetchnia is situated between the rivers 
Terek, Sunja, and the Little Kabardah, as the land south of 
the Sunja, which is divided into two parts by the river Goita. 
The land on the left bank is called Little, that on the right 
Great Tchetchnia. The Tchetchents, although already sub- 
jected to the Russian Crown in the reign of Peter the Great, 
have always proved a turbulent and dangerous people. In 
1818 General Yermolov subdued the greater part of the 
Tchetchnia ; and they remained quiet till the appearance of 
the " Muridism," which called forth all their native ferocity 
and fanatacism. They became the principal and most 
fanatical supporters of Schamyl. In 1840 they recognized 
Schamyl as their sovereign. With him they succumbed in 



THE TCHETCHENTS. 



133 



1859, and became again Russian subjects. They have how- 
ever (since 1865) emigrated in large numbers to Turkey. 
Their tribes are the Ingoush (in the neighbourhood of Vladi- 
kavkas, the Nazranians (Nazz-Khpi), the Karaboulaks, the 
Galaski (Galasherts), the Galgai (Gal-Khoi), the Kistes, 
the Djerakki, the Tsori, the Akhos, the Pskekkol, the Shou- 
bonty, the Shiaros, the Kialal, the Djan-Boutri, the Tcharbil, 
the Itchkeri, the Kalckkalyks, the Mitckiks, and the Aoukh. 

Although of tall and slender build they are vigorously 
constituted, of pale complexion, and have a sinister, piercing 
glance, aquiline nose, and marked features. They are strong 
and active, and all their movements are easy and graceful. 
Their morals are of a low standard, they are brigands, and 
a dangerous robbery, pluckily carried out, counts with them 
for a grand deed. Only relations and neighbours are beyond 
the pale of their license. They are not wanting in prudence 
and reflection, and their intercourse with strangers is gene- 
rally marked by a certain courtesy and amiability joined to a 
somewhat haughty demeanour. They are violent and un- 
tameable, cruel, covetous, and extremely vindictive. The 
crimes of treason, parricide, incest, and adultery with them 
are only punishable when the culprit is of the female sex. 
Cowardice is punished by public contempt. An unfaithful 
wife is stoned, or stamped to death by horses. In the case 
of a seduction, the girl is completely set right by marriage, 
and the seducer, if not inclined to this kind of atonement, is 
put to death on the first opportunity. The violation of hos- 
pitality is by them considered one of the deepest crimes. 
They would not even to Schamyl deliver the refugee Lesghi, 
who had fled to them for fear of a deserved punishment. 
Their family life is patriarchal, though influenced by Mo- 
hammedanism. The father of the family is the absolute 
chief. The men seldom clo any work, but load the women 
with all the toil of household and fields. A wife costs about 
twenty or thirty roubles, and she expects moreover an outfit 
for her wedding present. They keep the houses in good 
order and very clean, and live generally on affectionate 



134 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



terms. The men are very jealous and susceptible as regards 
conjugal fidelity. The young people are very reserved, and 
the conversation between future husband and wife is carried 
on with a deference bordering on the most delicate shyness. 
A Tchetchents never insults a young girl, or even touches 
her hand, as that would bring upon him the public con- 
tempt. During the confinement of the wife the husband 
absents himself from the house, leaving the patient to the 
care of his or her parents. He abstains even from speaking 
to his wife for a long time after the event, especially if the 
baby is a girl. The ' Tchetchents have no discourteous or 
insulting word or terms, and the djali-korne (child of a dog), 
rarely used by them, is of Kussian invention. If speaking 
contemptuously of the Russians they make use of a word of 
ambiguous meaning, viz., "ghiaour" — infidel, which pro- 
nounced " gaour" means dog. They cultivate maize, wheat, 
and millet, bees, and silkworms. They manufacture an inferior 
kind of cloth and linen, dress sheepskins, make felt bourkas, 
&c. They love silver coins, especially when small and new. 



CHAPTEE XV. 



THE TCHERKESS OR ADIGHE\ 

The Adighe (Azoukk of the Abkhaz) inhabit the north- 
eastern slope of the Caucasus, and, nnder the name of 
Kabarclians, the Great- and Lesser-Kabardah. They are 
divided into the following tribes : — The Natoukkais, Shap- 
zougs, Bjedoukks, Gatioukais, Abadzekhs, Kemgoui, Yegh- 
eroukoi, Makhrniroi, Mokkoshs, Beslenei, Oubykks, and 
Kabards. 

They belonged from an early period to the most inveterate 
enemies of Kussia. The Natoukkais are zealous Moslems, 
and have resisted Russian supremacy until recently. Sub- 
jected at last, they have almost all emigrated. 

The Shapzougs are a very wild tribe and little religious. 
Their religion is a mixture of Christianity, Islamism, and 
Paganism. Many of them profess no religion at all. 

The Gatioukais recommenced hostilities in 1850, but were 
subjected, and have now left the country. 

The Abadzekhs have never been tamed. In 1846 a famine 
induced them to submit to Russian rule, but they soon 
broke loose again, and had to be forced into subjection, 
in consequence of which they have emigrated in great 
numbers. 

The Tcherkess tribes number about 500,000 souls, and 
form two principal groups, viz., the Adighe (380,000), and 
the Abkhaz (120,000). The ancients called them " Korketes," 
the Byzantine historians, " Tsarkasoi," from which is de- 
rived the word " Circassian." They once inhabited the 



136 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Kouban Valley and the Crimea, and amongst them lived 
other more civilized people, which have left their traces in 
the ruins of ancient churches and villages. The memory of 
the Greeks, Venetians (Venedes), and Genoese (Djenidi), 
lives still in their tradition. Civilization in the Caucasus was 
evidently far more advanced during the Middle Ages, than it 
is now, which is probably owing to Turkish influence. San- 
guinary struggles between the aristocratic and democratic 
factions often induced the Tcherkess to recur to the Russians 
for help, but the enemies of Russia amongst their number 
always knew how to unite both parties to a general " levee 
en masse" against that power. Like Schamyl, Khadji- 
Mahomet (in 1842) preached Muriclism and the Shariat in 
Transkoubania. The Tcherkess listened to him, and began 
to devastate the Russian territory. After Khadji- Mahomet 
appeared Soliman-EfTencli, who, though a very learned man, 
had no talent for leadership. He quarrelled with the chiefs 
and even with Schamyl, and at last in disgust went over to 
the Russians in 1846. Schamyl's last emissary, Mahomet- 
Amine, was a very different personage. The " Sheikh," as 
the Tcherkess called him, was at that time nearly sixty 
years old, but possessed of great energy and endurance. He 
zealously preached the Shariat and Muridism, and organized 
six armed places. In each of these he established a tribunal. 
Already in 1851 he was at the head of a powerful party. In 
order to gain over the Adighe, he, though a low-born man, 
married into the princely family of Karabak-Bolotokov. The 
wilder tribes were however very hostile to him, and set up 
another prophet, Sefer-Bey, in opposition to him. After a 
long struggle and the capture of Schamyl, he in November 
1859 submitted to the Russians. 



THE ABKHAZ OR AZEGA. 

They inhabit the beautiful and fertile country between the 
rivers Khamysh and Ingour, and enjoy a most delightful and 
salubrious climate. One-half of their number are Chris- 



THE ABKHAZ. 



137 



tians, the other Mohammedans. They have none of the 
distinguished qualities of the other Caucasian peoples. Bo- 
denstedt says of them: " Their language resembles some- 
what that of the Adighe. They are distinguished from their 
neighbours by their social democratic organization and their 
physiognomical and bodily construction. The expression of 
their irregular features is ferocious ; of medium height and 
thin, they are vindictive, bloodthirsty robbers, and without 
faith. Having only vegetated for centuries, they have hardly 
any history. Christianity was first introduced into Abkhazia 
by the Emperor Justinianus, but showing little fruit, Queen 
Thamar had this people baptized again. The advent of the 
Turks however frustrated her object, and the Abkhaz became 
Mohammedans. They remained, notwithstanding all these 
changes, attached throughout to their ancient customs and 
idols. They have a great veneration for old trees, particu- 
larly oaks, and every tribe possesses one of these sacred 
trees. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE CAUCASUS. 

In taking leave of this beautiful and interesting country, 
a few words remain to be said respecting the probable future 
of the principal nations described in the preceding pages. 
Many erroneous views regarding their fate under Kussian 
rule have been created by writers who have never been 
amongst those nations, or have derived their information 
from prejudiced sources. For upwards of 200 years the 
Russian Government have zealously striven, by kindness and 
force, to bring about the conversion and civilization of the 
wild tribes of the Caucasian mountains, and if Christianity 
has not utterly been destroyed by the constant assaults of 
Pagan and Mohammedan invaders, it is principally owing to 
Russian protection. The Christian inhabitants of the Caucasus 
now live in the sunshine of peace and happy freedom, where 
formerly they had been for centuries outraged and oppressed 
by the followers of Mohammed, i.e., the Turks, Tartars, and 
Persians, as well as by their own princes and nobles. The 
groans of slavery have given way to songs of joy, the victims 
of oppression have risen from the dust, into which they had 
been trodden, and stand upright in the rays of a promising 
future. Churches and schools are being established even in 
the wildest regions of the imposing mountain world. Amidst 
the crystal temples of glacial nature resounds the peal of 
Christian bells, calling the once idolatrous population to the 
adoration of Him, who came into the world to comfort the 
poor and weary, and to enlighten those that know not. 



CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE CAUCASUS. 139 



If the task of civilizing the Mohammedan part of the 
Caucasian peoples had offered difficulties of a most serious 
kind before the appearance of Muridism, it has become one 
of utter futility ever since, as this phenomenon has destroyed 
all chances of Christian influence for centuries to come. 
Moreover, the habits of a roving, depredatory life of revenge, 
on the eye for eye and tooth for tooth principle, and other 
violent, often religiously revered customs, are too indelibly 
ingrained in the character of the greater part of the Moham- 
medan nationalities, to justify any hope of a speedy eradi- 
cation. With the best, nay anxious, desire to encourage the 
increase of population throughout their vast territories, and 
particularly in the rich country in question, the Russian 
Government has reluctantly come to the conclusion that the 
wholesale emigration of the Mohammedans, as zealously 
preached by their own Murshids, would prove in the end the 
most efficient fan, wherewith to separate the chaff from the 
wheat. The Government therefore not only readily gave its 
consent for the emigration, but entered into arrangements 
with the Porte for the transport of the tribes. In the spring 
of 1864 the writer, bound for Vladikavkas, met several of 
the caravans of the Koubanski Tcherkess, as they toiled along 
the dusty tracks of Cis- Caucasia. They offered a most 
heartrending spectacle. Victims of a fanatical zeal, they 
mournfully forsook the verdant prairies and woody heights of 
their fathers. Few of them had any money or means of 
subsistence. Owing to these circumstances and to the presence 
of the women and children, their progress was banefully pro- 
tracted. The Kouban ague, from which many were suffering 
before they started, degenerated into typhus, which rapidly 
communicating itself to the famished masses, strewed the 
steppes with their graves. The Russian officers did what 
they could, and made extraordinary efforts to bring the poor 
people as quickly as possible to their place of destination. 
The Turkish Government had concluded contracts with divers 
parties for the transport by sea from Taman to Kustendjeh. 
After having undergone the unspeakable wretchedness of a 



140 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



long steppe journey, the unfortunate emigrants now became 
the victims of the cupidity of unprincipled speculators. They 
were huddled up in the holds of sailing-vessels in ruinous 
numbers, and what between this crowding and the presence 
of so many sick, dying and dead, the result was that not more 
than half their original number ever reached the Turkish 
shores. Their misery did not even end here, for, no proper 
preparations having been made for their reception and pro- 
visory maintenance, the survivors were put to direful 
extremities, and in order to procure food, in many cases 
returned to the chivalrous occupation of their old country, 
i.e., cattle lifting, &c, and managed very soon to make them- 
selves thoroughly detested by their new friends. 

Thousands died of typhus, and have left their bones in the 
earth of the Faithful. Of the surviving, many, disgusted by 
the recej)tion their Turkish co-religionists had given them, 
have long since petitioned the Russian Government for per- 
mission to return to their old homesteads. Many have come 
back without permission. 

A few of the tribes, as, for instance, the Ossets, led by 
intelligent and prudent chiefs, have managed their emigration 
on far better conditions, but even those are not happy where 
they are, and yearn for their old scenes of adventure. It is 
the old story ! The process of civilization, in order to be 
sure, must necessarily be slow, and those nations, who, owing 
to their backward intellectual cultivation, cannot promptly 
conform to a new and better order of things, must make room 
for those who can. They have had centuries and every 
opportunity at their disposal for following the example of 
civilized nations. The only results are the ruined vestiges of 
former civilizing agents, proving that the march of intellect 
during the three last centuries has been of a decidedly retro- 
gressive nature. The Russian Government surely cannot be 
blamed for having neglected the education of the Caucasians. 
They have invited their chiefs on the most liberal and honour- 
able terms to their capitals, and taught their children at the 
best colleges of St. Petersburg and Moscow, in the hopes, 



CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE CAUCASUS. 141 



that, with the new generation, a new era of intellectual ad- 
vancement would begin to spread the light of civilization ; but 
all to no purpose. General Kondookkov, the Ossetinian 
Chief, of whom we have heard before, mournfully foresaw the 
inevitable fate that sooner or later must befal his people. 
He attempted the introduction of industrial habits ; but 
whatever he built up in the daylight of civilization, of which 
he individually had felt the genial warmth, was pulled down 
again in the night of fanaticism, the dark shades of which, 
in the shape of the Murshid's invocations, persisted in still 
further confounding the understanding of the ignorant masses. 

Most praiseworthy efforts have been made on the part of 
Protestant Missionaries to bring the dispersed Tartar and 
other tribes within the pale of Christ's Church, but the result 
can hardly be said to have become perceptible, even where 
the Missionary forces were of the most efficient kind. The 
Roman and Greek Churches would perhaps have stood a better 
chance, for the uncivilized mind must be touched through 
the medium of the senses, and the pompous ceremonies of 
those Churches would have been, for that reason, more likely 
to have made converts than the simple and unostentatious 
preaching of Christ's Gospel of love — a doctrine which is 
moreover so opposed to the revengeful and warlike spirit of 
the audience. 

In a lovely valley of the Beshtau, or Five Mountains, are 
situated the now celebrated mineral springs of Pjatigorsk, 
and in the neighbourhood, at Ckarass, has been for many 
years an English Missionary settlement. Owing to the un- 
heal thiness of the climate only two out of the original 17 
families resided there at the time of the writer's visit in 
1864. The two remaining were already very old, though hale 
gentlemen. 

Julius Yon Klaproth, in his " Travels in the Caucasus,' 
1807-1808, mentions this establishment. " These Mission- 
aries," he says, " are supported by the Scottish Society for 
the Propagation of the Gospel, and his Imperial Majesty has 
graciously conferred on them extraordinary privileges, pro- 



142 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



cured chiefly through the influence of the former Secretary 
of State, Nikolai Nikolajevick Novossilzov. The main objects 
of their establishment here are the translation of the Bible 
into Tartar, and the conversion of the Caucasian nations, 
particularly the Tartars, according to the tenets of the Church 
of England. As all these Missionaries apply themselves 
with peculiar zeal to the study of the Tartar language, most 
of them have already made very great proficiency in it, 
especially as they have native Tartars for their attendants? 
and are thus kept in constant practice. Their Superior? 
Henry Brunton, a worthy old man, who formerly resided as 
a Missionary in Africa among the Suni or Manclingar nation, 
has chiefly directed his attention to the language used in 
writing, and has ably translated the four Evangelists, besides 
several smaller religious books. All these works are printed, 
and, according to the account of several Tartars, whom I 
I questioned on the subject, they are extremely well 
written. 

The Mission has a complete printing-office, with a fine 
press, which, together with the paper for 3,000 copies of the 
New Testament, was sent hither from London. The Arabic- 
Tartar types rival in beauty those of the first-rate establish- 
ments in Europe. There are two founts ; the latter was cast 
upon the same matrices as were used for the Oxford letters, 
with which White's u Institutes of Timur," and several other 
works, have been printed in England. The smaller corre- 
sponds with the types employed in printing the Arabic New 
Testaments and Psalms (published 1720 to 1730), and after 
which the Arabic letters were cast at Gottingen. 

Up to the time of my visit to Ckarass, the following works 
had issued from the press of that place : — 

1. A large Catechism in the Tartar language, in question and 

answer, 92 pages, small 8vo. 

2. A shorter Catechism of seven pages, small 8vo., without 

title. 

3. Endshil diniln sseri, i.e., " The Essence of the Religion of 



ENGLISH-SCOTCH MISSION. 



143 



the Gospel." Printed at Ckarass, 1806, 14 pages, 
small 8vo. 

4. Bir dostiin Geiamy Mosslemaneh, " The Word of a Friend 

to the Mussulmans," 52 pages, small 8vo. At the end 
are the words : " At Ckarass in 1221st year of the 
Hhedshrah (1806)." 

5. Issainiln endshil Matteinun jassussi, " The Gospel of Jesus, 

written by Matthew." 

6. The Gospels of Mark, Luke, and John, printed together, 

in demi 8vo. 

As these missionaries enjoy the right of purchasing slaves, 
they already possess several Tcherkessians and Tartars, whom 
they have instructed in the precepts of Christianity and 
baptized, with the intention of restoring them at some future 
time to liberty. Excellent as the objects and plan of this 
institution may be, it seems very doubtful whether it will 
ever accomplish the aim of the founders, since it is extremely 
difficult to persuade Asiatics to embrace a religion unaccom- 
panied by external ceremonies, and the moral part of all 
religions is almost invariably alike. The missionaries have 
moreover excited the animosity of the neighbouring Nogai 
Tartars by the conversion of a person belonging to one of the 
principal families of that nation. 

Since my return from the Caucasus I have been informed 
that many Herrnhuters from Sarepta have removed to Ckarass 
and made common cause with the English missionaries, by 
which the colony has been considerably increased. Thus the 
whole institution is likely in time to lose its peculiar character, 
and the genuine Christian enthusiasm of its founders to de- 
generate into hypocrisy and avarice, which are well known to 
be the motives of all the actions of the Herrnhuters in their 
Eussian settlements, and the mission will soon be transformed 
into a mere linen manufactory, which, to be sure, would be a 
profitable concern, for linen and shirts are current coin 
throughout all the Caucasus." 

It is to be regretted that a man of such distinguished 



144 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



literary parts like Klaproth . should have advanced such 
extraordinary comments and vague statements regarding the 
" Herrnhuters," a community of which he evidently knew 
nothing whatever, and than which no Christian denomination 
is less swayed by selfish or interested motives. His mind 
had doubtless been poisoned by reports proceeding from the 
lips of enemies, by which this meritorious but unretaliating 
class of Christians has often been most unjustly calumniated. 
The above statement is false in every detail ; for, in the first 
instance, the Herrnhuters or rather Evangelical Community 
of Brethren (United Brethren, Moravian Brethren) has only 
one settlement in Russia, i.e., at Sarepta, in the government 
of Saratov. They have never settled nor intended to settle 
in the Caucasus, and all who know anything of their system 
of economy, or of their laborious and eminently successful 
but yet unobtrusive efforts for the propagation of the Gospel 
in all parts of the world, will readily and indignantly absolve 
them from the charges of hypocrisy and avarice. They are 
the spiritual descendants of the Wickliffians, the TValdenses, 
and Albigenses, and, finally, of the Moravian and Bohemian 
Evangelical Christians, who at the beginning of last century 
were expelled from Roman Catholic Austria, and fled to 
Saxony, where they found their first resting place on the 
estates of Count von Zinsendorf. They had been for many 
years brethren in adversity and in religious persuasion. The 
cruel persecutions of which they had been the victims during 
centuries had firmly knit them together. In the soli- 
tudes of the wild Bohemian forests, in desolate places, they 
had met in order to listen to the preaching of the true Gospel 
of Christ. "Wrestling with dangers from their infancy, their 
minds and hearts were filled with that lofty heroism which 
enables man to face hardships and death for the sake of the 
Faith, and which has made them the bold pioneers of 
Christianity and civilization in many parts of the world. 

The report of a Moravian settlement in the Caucasus owed 
its origin probably to the journey of two of their missionaries 
through that country in search of a remnant of a company of 



MORAVIAN BRETHREN. 



145 



Bohemian Brethren, who were known to have fled into Asia 
during a time of persecution, and whom they thought of 
being able to trace among the tribe of the Tchetchi (probably 
Tchetchents, Bohemian Czechi). They accordingly dispatched, 
in November, 1781, Brothers Gottfried Grabsch and Georg 
Gruhl to Astrakhan, where the Governor furnished them 
with passports, to enable them to visit the Tartars on Mount 
Caucasus. They first proceeded to Beregee, the place where 
Professor Gmelin was imprisoned and died. The Moham- 
medan inhabitants refused them shelter and food, and after 
great trouble and a long detention by Uzmei-Khan, who 
took all possible pains to find out their real object in coming, 
and believed Brother Grabsch to be a learned and rich man, 
or a physician, they on the 11th March, 1782, started for 
Kubasha. Immediately on their entering the town, their 
ears were assailed by the cry of the Mollahs upon the mina- 
rets, calling the people to prayer ; proving the people to be 
Mohammedans. They lodged with Uzmei-Khan's friend, 
Mahmud, who appointed them a room on the fifth floor of 
his house. 

Brother Grabsch immediately proceeded to inquire into 
the origin, religion, language, and books of the inhabitants, 
visited every house, and left nothing undone, if possible to 
trace some memorial of the Christian religion having once 
prevailed at Kubasha. He discovered the ruins of three 
churches, and an inscription over the door of one of them ? 
cut in stone, which neither he nor the inhabitants could 
decipher, except that in the middle of it the number 1215, 
in the usual Arabic ciphers, had remained legible. Not far 
from this ruin stands a noble and stately church, built of 
hewn stone, and decorated with a profusion of architectural 
ornaments, but now converted into dwellings, and divided 
into five stories. At the top of the building several inscrip- 
tions were pointed out to Brother Grabsch, but he was utterly 
unacquainted with the characters. The people possess no 
more any books written in the characters formerly in use 
amongst them ; they now use the Arabic both in writing the 



146 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Turkish, Tartar, or their own language. They assert that 
about 325 years ago (about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
tury) they became converts to Islamism. 

Brother Grabsch had a long conversation with ten of the 
most intelligent inhabitants of Kubasha, hoping to discover 
from them some trace of the Czeshi or supposed Bohemian 
Brethren. They told him, that 300 years ago they had been 
Christians, but they now thanked God for having directed 
them into the right way to Heaven ; that they did not wish 
to hear anything about the Christian faith, and could never 
acknowledge him as a brother until he turned Mussulman, 
and that they hoped his intention in coming to Kubasha was 
not to reform them, &c. 

Brother Grabsch's reply is characteristic of the equitable 
and dispassionate principles of the Moravian Brethren. He 
declared, that it was not his intention, neither was it in his 
power, to turn them from their way of thinking, if they 
believed themselves so certain of possessing the truth ; for 
the Brethren to whom he belonged only endeavoured to 
instruct such as were troubled in their consciences and 
anxious to be restored to the favour of God, and to point out 
to them the only true and living way to heaven and happi- 
ness, through the merits of Jesus Christ. 

At taking leave they all declared their friendship for him, 
and Mahmud himself assured him, that whenever he came to 
Kubasha he would always consider and treat him as his 
brother. " What," said Brother Grabsch, " though I do 
not turn Mussulman?" " Oh, all that goes for nothing," 
replied Mahmud. 

At Derbent the missionaries were detained for some time 
by Hashi Bek, until some silk goods confiscated by the 
Russians should be restored to him. They had to write to 
their Kislar friends for assistance, which they also obtained 
by return of the messengers, and proceeded at last in company 
of a caravan to Tiflis. The journey proved very tedious, as 
the waggons were drawn by oxen, and the drivers, who were 
Mohammedans, refused to supply the travellers with food. 



CZAR HERACLIUS, AND MORAVIAN VISITORS. 147 



They were in great fear of attacks on the part of the Lesghi, 
who had just returned from a wholesale plundering expe- 
dition. At Baku and Shemakkah they lodged with Arme- 
nian Christians, who treated them with great kindness. 
During his abode here, Brother Grabsch was frequently con- 
sulted as a physician, though he constantly protested against 
it. He found many opportunities to preach Jesus, both 
to Armenians and Persians, by whom he was heard with 
pleasure and attention. The last thirty miles before Tiflis 
they had to make on foot under a scorching sun, and when 
at last, weary and faint, they arrived, they did not know 
where to stay the night. A young boy, whom they met in 
the suburbs, took them to his father's house. He was a poor 
and aged man, but both he and his wife received the travel- 
lers most kindly, declaring that God himself had sent them 
these guests. 

On the following clay they went in search of an Armenian, 
to whom they were recommended. They had likewise a letter 
to Prince or Czar Heraclius, of Georgia, who was then absent. 
They were, however, by order of Prince George most hospi- 
tably entertained at the Czar's expense. The Governor, 
Gabriel Pavlovich Galebov, and Prince Paul Andronikov, 
showed them also much friendship, and, in general, they 
were treated with every mark of kindness and respect. On 
the 30th they had an audience from the Czar. Brother 
Grabsch was placed in a chair close by the Czar, who bade him 
welcome, and conversed with him in the Turkish language. 
They remained about a fortnight, during which time the 
Czar as well as the Russian authorities showed them the 
kindest attention. The latter pressed them hard respecting 
the establishment of a Moravian settlement in Georgia. At 
midnight of the 6th July the Czar sent for them, and begged 
them to apply to the Sarepta Elders for the establishment of 
a Moravian colony in his territory. The Czar at last rose 
from his seat, and stepping up to Brother Grabsch, addressed 
him : " Feodor Ivanovich, I am informed that the Brethren 
are an upright and intelligent people ; and if I could get 



148 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



five, ten, a hundred, or a thousand of them to settle in my 
country, I should give praise to God. That would indeed be 
a crown on my head, even in hoary age." He offered to 
write himself to the bishops and elders of the Brethren's 
church, promising to grant them every privilege they could 
desire, and in case they found their abode in his country un- 
pleasant, to send them back at his own charge. 

The Czar was then sixty-four years old, and wore a long 
black beard. He had a venerable and mild countenance, and 
was as much noted for his humanity as for his military 
prowess. His mode of living was regular ; he spent most of 
his time either in transacting the business of the State, or in 
religious exercises, and devoted but a few hours to sleep. 
He had six sons and seven daughters ; the behaviour of the 
former was very cordial and unreserved. 

Brother G-rabsch found here a desirable opportunity of 
writing by a caravan to the Brethren's missionaries at Grand 
Cairo. His landlord, a man of extensive knowledge, both in 
the European and Asiatic languages, who had travelled 
through most of the Western countries of Europe, informed 
him, to his surprise, that he had visited the missionaries of 
the Brethren's church both near Tranquebar and at Nancau- 
wery, one of the Nicobar islands. 

Having received a letter from Czar Heraclius to the 
bishops and elders of the Brethren's Unity, written in the 
Turkish language, the two missionaries left Tin* is on the 2nd 
of August for Mosdok. The Czar gave them an escort, and 
provided in every way for their safe passage of the Kazbek. 
The Ossets having destroyed all the bridges over the Terek, 
they were obliged to climb over the most steep and dan- 
gerous rocks. An Ossetian, Prince Dudarukva (perhaps a 
relation of the author's friend, Col. Dudarov), gave them a 
safe-conduct into his village, Achmet, but he demanded an 
exorbitant reward, for his civility, in cotton goods. As they 
were not able to pay it, he detained them many days. 
Arrived at Mosdok they found out their mistake respect- 
ing the Tchetchi or Tchegemzes (as they called the 



MORAVIAN BRETHREN. 



149 



Tchetchents), and returned to Sarepta by way of Kislar and 
Astrachan. 

This account, which, apart from the interest it offers with 
regard to the religious community it describes, and their 
endeavours to propagate the Gospel of Christ, is a curious 
illustration of the condition of some of the Caucasian nations 
towards the end of last century. Having said so much 
regarding the Moravians and their institutions, we may con- 
clude by stating, that their missions are not carried on by the 
aid of charitable contributions ; but that the trades in which 
they are engaged, and the capital for which is supplied by 
the congregational treasury, together with their excellent 
educational establishments, alone furnish the means for the 
execution of their benevolent enterprises. It thus appears, 
that every member of the Fraternal Unity contributes with 
hand and brain towards the spreading of Christianity in its 
purest form. Their church rites resemble the Lutheran, 
though there are attached to them divers beautiful ceremo- 
nies, and their music is considerably above the medium 
standard. Wherever they may be settled, they are good 
patriots and obedient to the authorities of the country that 
affords them protection. They therefore willingly obey the 
call to arms in defence of the fatherland, and many a young 
Moravian Brother sleeps in a French grave. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE URALO- ALTAIC POPULATION". 
THE SAMOYEDES. 

Springing from the same Altaic source, they seem to 
form the link between the Finnish and Mongolian races, and 
are spread over the extensive tract of country between the 
White Sea and the Khatanga and Yenisse'i rivers. From 
the Ostiaks we learn of their cruelty and brutality, how they 
would pluck the yet quivering heart from their enemies' 
breasts and even devour the slain. Their Kussian name 
implies the habit of anthropophagy. 

Their language consists of three distinct idioms, i. e. , those 
of Timan, Ijma, and Kazym. 

1. The Samoyedes of North-Western Siberia. They are 

divided into Samoyedes of Kanin, Timan, of the 
swamps of Bolshy-Zemelsk, of the mouth of the Obi 
and into Youraks. The latter are, however, sharply 
distinguished from all the other tribes. The three 
first live in European Eussia, and are called 
i( Samoyedes of Mezen." 

2. The Samoyedes of Timan live in the country between 

the eastern coast of the Glacial Sea and the Petchora, 
the Tsylma forming the southern confines of their 
territory. They are close neighbours of 

3. The Samoyedes of Kanin, who occupy the westernmost 

position of all. They keep reindeer in great numbers, 
and are bold hunters and fishers. Their prey consists 



SAMOYEDES. 



151 



of foxes, wolves, reindeer, seals, polar-bears, and birds. 
They number about 1000 heads. 
4. The, Samoyedes of the swamps of Bolshy -Zemelsk inhabit 
the territory between the Petchora and Ural and as 
far as the mouth of the Kara. 

They are divided into three tribes, L e., the Pustozersk 
(1600 souls), Ijmas (1000 souls), and Oust-Zelemsk (1000 
souls). The first live on the very coast of the Glacial Sea. 
They all are hunters and fishers, their game being principally 
reindeer, wolves, foxes, and birds. 

Christianity has been introduced amongst the Samoyedes 
of Me'zen in 1822, and in 1826 the first church was built 
(and consecrated) on the Lake Kharvea in the Ural. Before 
the year 1830, about 3303 persons had received baptism. 
Not long after, two additional churches and a school per 
district were erected. The Pagan portion of the people 
practise Shamanism, believe in a superior being " Noum," 
spirits, demons, and adore idols. They prefer to celebrate 
their rites in the island of Vaigatch, it being for them the 
most sacred place on earth. " Nouni " is also believed by 
them to be the Creator of the Gods. Death is for them the 
end of everything, only ' tabidis ' (Shamans) are immortal. 

Each " tundra " (marsh) has a chief, who, together with an 
assistant, is elected every three years. He receives two per 
cent of the " Yassak" (tribute in furs), for which he is 
responsible. 

The Samoyedes are timid and peaceable, and disputes, 
rows, and murders are very rare amongst them, and whenever 
they happen, it is generally found to have been caused by 
drink. They are careful not to offend, but neither will 
they tolerate insult. Liquor and tobacco are their greatest 
solace. Their character shows a certain fund of good nature, 
but they are very lazy, and abominable gluttons. Their 
intellectual faculties are little developed, they are careless, 
improvident, and therefore poor. They dream and think of 
nothing but the finding of good pasturage for their reindeer. 



152 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Some of these people on hearing of the magnificent splendour 
of St. Petersburg, exclaimed in a transport of admiration: 
" What a splendid moss must there not be at St. Petersburg 
for our reindeer ! " They are indescribably dirty in their 
habits, and positively never wash. The men are short of 
stature but strongly constituted. The women are perhaps still 
more filthy than the men. They are exceedingly dissolute, 
and look like old hags at the age of twenty. Their number 
is gradually diminishing, so that they will probably die out 
before long. 

THE SAMOYEDES OF THE CxULF OF THE OBI. 

They number about 4500 souls, and resemble the Samoyedes 
of the other tribes, only their dialect is altogether distinct from 
the rest. It is disagreeable to the ear, and they possess no 
written language. They are decidedly superior in intellect 
to the Ostjaks, prudent, thoughtful and economical. Those 
of their children who visited the schools at Berezov from 
1844 to 1849 distinguished themselves by a peculiar pro- 
ficiency in arithmetic, design, and calligraphy. These 
Samoyedes are of short stature, but of a robust constitution. 
They have big heads, straight foreheads, round and flat faces, 
big mouths, dirty yellow complexions, projecting cheekbones 
and narrow eyes (similar to the Mongol type), black hair 
(bristle-like), big ears, and short hands and feet. The ladies 
are quite as ugly as the gentlemen. Their dress is made of 
reindeer skins and similar to that of the Ostjaks. Coloured 
strips of cloth, sown on to the furs, are considered the height 
of elegance by the — fair sex. These people live in portable 
tents, by the Russians called " tchoum," by the Samoyedes 
" Mjakani." They eat little bread, but much fish and rein- 
deer meat, and the hot blood taken from the dying reindeer 
is considered the greatest delicacy. Their way of feeding 
offers a revolting sight. The instant a reindeer is skinned 
and its belly cut open, the whole family pounces, knife in 
hand, on the warm flesh, which they dip into the reeking 
blood and swallow, without masticating, with beastly voracity. 



YOUJRAKS. 



153 



That which the men cannot eat, is left to the women, who 
without knife, bury their ugly heads into the gory carcass, 
and with their sharp teeth soon finish the remainder. This 
tribe practises Shamanism to a great extent, and not very 
long ago robbed and massacred the Christian Ostjaks that 
lived amongst them. If one of them dies, they dress the 
dead body in his best suit, and get his favourite reindeer to 
carry it to the grave. The latter is covered with planks and 
earth. Four men, armed with stout bludgeons, then smash 
the head of the reindeer. If it dies without a struggle, it is 
considered a lucky omen, and they evince extravagant joy. 
But if it lift again its head, they run away in every directioD, 
crying " Vassissa, Vassissa ! " (woe, woe !) They then light 
a great fire over the grave, into which they pour oil, fat, 
bread and tobacco, and everybody presses forward to fumigate 
the clothes, which operation, they suppose, breaks the spell. 

THE YOURAKS. 

This nomadic tribe, which counts about 500 souls, is 
little known. Their land forms part of the district of 
Touroukhansk in the government Yenisseisk. They have 
black hair and a dark complexion and more agreeable faces 
than the last tribe. They have fine figures, and are agile and 
handy. The women resemble the Russian type. The cos- 
tume of both sexes is very simple, and entirely made of 
reindeer skins, and attached to it is a hood. They let their 
long hair hang down behind, and ornament it with tin 
buttons, small chains, and even with silver roubles, which 
articles are bought of the merchants of the Yenisseisk 
government. The wealthier people try to imitate Russian 
dress and customs. Fire-arms are almost unknown to them. 
The river Youraks are nearly all pagans. Their numerous 
gods are represented by animals, of which the wolf is 
execrated, but the bear held in veneration. The new-born 
children are at once plunged into cold water or snow, in 
order to make them hardy, and for the same reason they 
sleep in a state of complete nudity. The consequence is, that 



154 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



the Siberian winter carries off many babies. They are very 
careful of their sick. Chilblains they cure with bear's 
grease. Some of them possess as many as 1000 reindeer, 
and love them so much, that they will suffer the severest 
pangs of hunger for four or five days together, before they 
can make up their minds to kill one of their tame favourites. 
When at last they kill a reindeer or a bear, they make up 
for their abstinence by bolting as much as fifteen pounds of 
meat at one meal. 

The Samoyedes of the North-Eastern Provinces or Tavghi 
live in the extreme north of Siberia, and are exposed to a 
frightful climate. There are but few of them left. 

Those of the country between the Yenisse'i and Khatanga 
are Pagans. They also eat the meat raw, but are cleanlier 
than the Ostjak- Samoyedes. 

The Samoyedes of Southern Siberia are neighbours of the 
Youraks, and inhabit the Upper Taz, the Yelogoul, and the 
affluents of the Yakh river. They are pure Samoyedes as 
regards race. 

The Ostjak-Samoyedes, speaking the dialect of Tourouk- 
ha?isk, are principally fishers. They are dirty in their 
habits, and exceedingly lazy, and therefore the poorest 
tribe of all. 

The Ostjaks, speaking the dialect of Tomsk. Their lan- 
guage is different from any of the other Samoyede dialects. 
Though baptized long since, they still continue their idola- 
trous rites. Like the Samoyedes of the .north-east, they 
■have their traditional heroic songs. They are fishers, and 
carriers of merchandize. At the beginning of winter they 
start in sledges for distant hunting grounds. They are poor, 
lazy, stupid, and brutal. 

The Samoyedes- Kamassin inhabit the land on the right 
banks of the Yenissei, but there are few of them left.' 

The Ostjaks of the Yenissei number 900 souls, and inhabit 
the banks of the Yenissei, about half-way up its course. 
They are of middle size, rather feebly constituted, and with- 
out characteristic traits. The expression of the men's faces 



OSTJAKS. 



155 



is hard and sinister. The women have all a sickly appear- 
ance. Both sexes are notorious by their total disregard of 
cleanliness. They have been Christians for many years, and 
there is no Shamanism amongst them ; but their character 
is savage, cunning, deceitful and they are very cruel to 
their wives, whom they can buy at 10 or 15 roubles (30s. to 
45s.) ahead. They abandon their sick with the same cruelty. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



THE FINNISH NATIONS. 

After the Slavonian, these constitute the majority of the 
Russian population. They lived in ancient times in the 
western parts of Siberia, and were carried westward by the 
emigration of peoples. They may be divided into two 
groups ; i.e., the western and eastern. 

(a.) The Western Group , or Baltic Finns (Russ., Tchou- 
khnya, Tchoukhontsy : Finn., Suomalaisets) comprises the 
Esthonians, Livonians, Laps, in short, the Finnish inha- 
bitants of Finland, Lapland, Esthonia, of the governments 
of Archangel, Olonetz, St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Tver, 
Livonia, and Courland. 

The primitive inhabitants of Finland proper were the 
Laps. The country to the south and south-west of the lake 
Ladoga was inhabited by the Tchoude tribes — the Yemes 
and Votes. North of that lake lived the Karelians. 

During the twelfth century the latter commenced en- 
croaching on the Tchouds in a westward direction. The 
Yemes were the first to be driven into Finland by the 
Ingrians. Chasing before them the Laps, they came upon 
the Karelians, by whom they were pushed westward to the 
centre of Finland, and towards the Finnish Gulf. 

The Votes were completely disabled by Prince Vseslav of 
Polotsk, at the battle of Novgorod, in the year 1069. 

At the end of the eleventh century the Votes and Kare- 
lians were close neighbours of the Slavonians, and adopted 
their customs and religion. 



FINNISH NATIONS. 



157 



The Finnish nationalities are divided into four principal 
sections ; i. e., the Tchouds of the south (Livonians and 
Esthonians), the true Finnish tribes, the Karelian tribes, 
and the Laps. 

FIRST SECTION. 

The Livonians (Courland), 2000 souls. 

The Esthonians (Virolaisets), living in the Tchoukhnia, 
north of the Livonians, and in the governments of 
St. Petersburg, Pskov, and Vitebsk (about 700,000 
souls). 

SECOND SECTION. 

The Votes, a remnant of the ancient Tchouds (about 5000 

souls), inhabiting two districts of the government of 

St. Petersburg. 
The Tchouds, like the Votes, branches of the Yemes 

(55,000 souls), in the governments of Novgorod and 

Olonetz. 

The true Finns (Suomalaisets), in South- West Finland 
(600,000 souls). 

THIRD SECTION. 

The Kvaenes and Karelians (Kamulaisets and Karia- 
laisets), in the northern and eastern parts of Finland 
and in the governments of Archangel, Olonetz, Nov- 
gorod, Tver, and St. Petersburg. 

The Aeyraemoeisets (30,000), in the governments of St. 
Petersburg and Viburg. 

The Ingrians (18,000), in the government of St. Peters- 
burg. 

The Savakotes (45,000), in the governments of St. Peters- 
burg and Viburg. 

FOURTH SECTION. 

The Laps (4000), in the north of Finland. They are of 
foreign origin, but speak now the Finnish language. 



158 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



THE LIVONIANS (2000 SOULS). 

These people have preserved their language in tolerable 
purity, but it is spoken only amongst intimate connections. 
The official and Church language is the Lettonian. Near 
relations of the Esthonians, they are bold mariners, and 
dangerous wreckers ; violent, unforgiving, and extremely 
obstinate. Drunkenness and theft are frequent amongst 
them, but their marriage vow is severely kept. Their con- 
jugal life is altogether exemplary. Their women and girls 
are as courageous sailors as the men. They marry late; 
frequent exposure prematurely renders their skin wrinkled, 
greyish, and aged in appearance; but they enjoy robust 
health. They are very shy in the presence of strangers. 

Their religion is the Lutheran; but, although at first 
sight their piety seems profound, they seldom show the true 
index of the Christian religion, i. a sincere conviction 
of the truth of Christ's doctrine. 

THE ESTHONIANS (700,000) 

are distributed throughout the governments of Esthonia 
(260,000), St. Petersburg (10,000), Pskov (10,000), Vitebsk 
(10,000), and the northern parts of Livonia (410,000). 

They call themselves " Ma-mees " (man of the land), or 
"Tallopoeg" (son of the farm, fr. Finn., "talo;" Hun- 
garian, "telek"). Their country they name " Meie-ma " 
(our country), and their nation " Ma-rahvas " (people of 
the land). Amongst the Finns they go by the name of 
" Virolaisets." 

Sharing the fate of the Letts, they were Christianized, 
civilized, and tyrannized over by the Teutonic knights. 

Their character is somewhat ruder than that of the Letts, 
but has more vigour and resisting power. Their civilization 
began with their subjection in 1327. 

They are heavy-jawed, thin-necked, of middle size, but 
stout and strong. Near the coast they grow taller. Their 
hair is reddish-fair, soft, and straight ; their complexion and 



FINNISH TRIBES. 



159 



shape of skull somewhat approaching the Mongolian type. 
Their language is a Finnish dialect. 

The Esthonian is generally serious and awkward in 
manner, diffident of strangers, and the women are little 
inclined to fun or gaiety. Patient, because phlegmatic, their 
carriage is far from easy ; but they are vindictive, and the 
most inveterate enemies of the German race. Without 
being warlike, they possess a certain stubborn courage, and 
show no fear of death. Adultery is considered by them the 
most horrible crime. Without being either intelligent or 
sagacious (though not so stupid as the Germans try to make 
them out), they are honest and disinterested. They never 
dance, and the swings are their greatest amusement. 

Their popular lore generally has a chaste and noble love 
for its object, and they have preserved many heroic legends. 

They celebrate weddings with great pomp, the rejoicings 
lasting often many days. 

THE FINNS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ST. PETERSBURG (100,000) 

differ little from other Finns, but have adopted many 
Eussian customs. 

THE votes (5000). 

They inhabit the districts of Oranienbaum, of Yamburg, 
and the sea-shore. Their religion is the Greek. Only the 
men speak the Russian language, and badly enough. Their 
style of living is similar to that of the Esthonians. They 
are all independent farmers, not excepting the poorest 
amongst them. 

THE INGRIANS, OR IJORS (18,000). 

Their settlements are situated in the government of St. 
Petersburg. They derive their name from Inghegherd, 
daughter of Olof Skoet-Konung, King of Sweden, who (in 
1019) married the Grand Duke Yaroslav, and who gave her 
name to the land she had demanded for her dowry, as well 
as to the river and the inhabitants, although the latter did 
not appear on it until 100 years after that event. Their 



160 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



constant quarrels with the Karelians and Yemes drove them 
into the arms of the Russians. 

The JEyramioeisets (30,000) live in the government of St. 
Petersburg, and resemble the last tribe. 

The Savahotes (45,000) also of the government of St. 
Petersburg, are distinguished from the last only by the 
different dress of the women. They are all Lutherans. 

The Finns of Finland, or the Karels of the Russians 
(1,430,000). 

They are farmers, and have been so for centuries, only on 
the coast they occupy themselves in trade, and make very 
good sailors. As regards their character, they are just, 
energetic, tenacious, and patient, and probity is the con- 
spicuous and indigenous virtue of the people living in the 
north-eastern part of Bothnia. The affability and hos- 
pitality of the Finns of the interior of Finland is proverbial. 
They are rather tongue-tied, and seem melancholy. Although 
themselves fair, with bine or grey eyes, their heroes, as 
described in their songs, are invariably dark with raven hair. 
They are middle-sized, with low foreheads, straight nose, and 
prominent cheek bones. They shave beard and moustaches, 
and, parting the hair in the middle, they let it fall over the 
ears. Their religion is the Lutheran, and they celebrate 
Christmas by great solemnities. 

Their poetry is of the Epic style (rouno), and most productive 
amongst the Karelians. Superstition has still great sway 
with these people. They live principally by agriculture and 
fishing, and are bold hunters of the bear, wolf, fox, &c. Their 
country produces a great amount of tar. 

FOURTH SECTION. — THE LAPS. 

The Laps of Finnish Lapland or Enare Laps, so-called 
after the river of the same name, in which fish abound. 
Their territory is close to the Norwegian frontiers. They 
were Christianized during the Catholic era of Finland, but 
became Protestants three centuries ago. The first Protestant 
temple was built in the year 1600. Summer is their fishing 



LAPS. 



161 



season, in winter they hunt the reindeer. They live in yourtes 
(Tartar), or kotes (Lap). The aspect of their villages is dis- 
agreeable to the eye of the visitors, and an accumulation of 
offal of fish renders them still more offensive to the nose. 
They salute the stranger by a mute pressure of the hand, 
and childish questions, such as : " Is the Czar well ? Is the 
Bishop well ? Is the Governor well ? " &c. The women 
make themselves obnoxious by their fidgety curiosity. They 
possess the latter quality to a truly distracting extent. 
Their wearing apparel consists in reindeer-skin coats and 
trousers, to which, in winter, is added a large bear-skin 
collar covering chest and spine. This collar is made larger 
for the women, who, moreover, on holidays, wear a toupee of 
five inches in height on the very top of their head. 

As regards their religious condition, they are habitually 
pious, but, at the same time, very superstitious, and there 
exists still amongst them a species of rite, of which the 
serpent is the object. They know all the Psalms and Church 
service, as well as the New Testament, by heart ; have 
prayers in the morning, at night, and before and after meal 
times. The Laps are much attached to wife and child, and 
even to the servants. Notwithstanding this mildness, they 
possess a great share of courage and intrepidity. Great 
crimes are scarce amongst them, but they have no idea of 
good manners, and the men are apt to enforce their will with 
the fist. 

THE LAPS OF EUSSIAN LAPLAND. 

There are about 3000 of them. They live principally in 
the government of Archangel, and belong to the Greek 
Church. Full of superstition, they believe in sorceries, magic 
art, &c. They will soon be altogether russified. 

THE EASTERN FINNISH GROUP. 

The Permiaks (60,000). Of that number 25,000 souls 
belong to the Perm country, 30,000 to Iven, the property of 

M 



162 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



the noble family of the Stroganovs, and to Viatka 5000. 
They are fast degenerating. Once celebrated for their tallj 
and even colossal statures, they are now stunted in growth 
and weak. There is only one family of the old and pure 
Permian blood extant. A member of the same was a perfect 
giant in size and strength, who could lift a cart weighing 
upwards of 1000 pounds on to another cart. He attained the 
age of 115 years, his father having been 112 years old when 
he died. 

The present race is broad-shouldered, thin, and short- 
necked, with flat chest, little shanks, big hands and feet, and 
of deformed appearance. Their heads are small and angular, 
and the forehead depressed. The women have, however, 
pretty, small hands. One sees generally two types, of which 
one is fair and even red-haired, with big face, red or yellowish 
complexion, grey eyes, big turned-up nose, thick lips, and 
round chin ; while the other is characterised by the dark 
brown hair, long face, smutty complexion, dark eyes, straight 
and thin nose, thin lips and pointed chin. Neither sex is 
handsome. Their half-closed, inexpressive eyes, and the rest 
of their ugly countenance, impress the latter with the character 
of stupidity, brutality, low cunning, malignant caprice ; and 
regarding the married people, of unbridled sensuality. 

The young girls have often brighter and more expressive 
eyes, but neither eyebrow nor bosom. The walk of the 
Permian s is awkward and clumsy, and vacillating, and accom- 
panied by a grotesque swinging of the arms. On the whole 
they are healthy, but both men and women are excessively 
lazy. Rude and arrogant at home, the Permiak is timid and 
shy abroad. They are drunkards, and grossly immoral. 
Their churches are little frequented, but they keep the fasts 
rigorously. 

They call themselves "Komi." Their language is a 
Tchoud-Idiom. It is very poor, and considerably adulterated 
with Russian words. All Permiaks speak the Russian 
language. 



ZYRIANS. 



163 



THE ZYRIANS (90,000 SOUls). 

They are a people of hunters, and inhabit the inhospitable 
territory of the eastern parts of the Vologda and Archangel 
Governments. They thus are the southern neighbours of the 
Samoyedes. The Zyrian is a perfect man of nature, in as 
far, at least, as he lives entirely amidst Nature's grand and 
often terrible scenes. He passes the whole winter in the 
forest, hunting the bear, wolf, fox, sable, &c. In peaceful 
tranquillity, he lives a life of primitive simplicity. At first 
sight his appearance is anything but pleasant and winning. 
There is a certain cunning expression in his eyes, and side- 
long glances, and an awkward reserve, which are repulsive to 
the stranger. If not spoken to in his own tongue, he main- 
tains a rigid silence. But he who understands how to manage 
him, will soon discover many good qualities of heart in him. 
He is of middle size, strongly and regularly built, and of 
pale complexion. His speech is chopping and intoned like 
a chaunt. Fish and fruit are his principal food, and water 
strictly his only beverage. His love for the paternal hearth 
is unbounded, and sooner than leave his home, he will readily 
undergo the greatest hardships. It happens often, that his 
crops are entirely destroyed by drought, or frost, &c. In that 
case he will content himself with bran, bark, and young pine 
twigs. They have their own patriarchal life apart from the 
rest of the world, and their travelled countryman loses in their 
eyes, because he with his experience, his foreign look, and his 
narratives, disturbs the smooth and clear surface of their 
simple, happy existence. Frank, and full of kindly feeling 
for each other, the Zyrians, in the presence of strangers, 
become impenetrable, vindictive, and distrustful. Persevering 
in danger and hardships, bold in all their enterprises, they 
strictly keep their word, and fulfil what they have undertaken 
to the very letter. They are scrupulously honest. When 
carrying money to the stations (for instance, the amount of 
the village's government taxes) the Zyrian will inform all 
passers-by of his errand, whereupon those solemnly uncover 



164 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



their heads. On his arrival the landlord sends at once allpersons 
present out of the house, and as soon as the event is known 
in the village, everybody hides in his house until the messenger 
has gone again. The Zyrian is very hospitable, and a traveller 
is nowhere safer than with him. When he leaves home, he 
leaves his doors wide open, as if inviting all passers-by to 
enter. He loves solemnities, especially if frequently repeated, 
that last for several days, and cost much money. His 
Christian education makes, as yet, little headway. The 
Zyrian of the Vologda district farms and breeds cattle, now 
and then, and to a limited extent. He then lives on bread, 
milk, and butter, but he is essentially hunter and fisher. He 
earns much money by the sale of his furs and fish, but in 
most cases remains poor, as he spends his money freely, and 
does not mind incurring debt besides. Their rivers swarm 
with fish, especially the river-net of the district of Oust- 
Syssolsk. In the Petshora many salmon are caught, which 
often weigh as much as 601bs. But the " lokh " (i.e., salmon 
that has hibernated in a lake) sometimes exceeds that weight 
by upwards of 401bs. The sterlet attains to 301bs. In that 
district alone about 6000 tons of fish are taken annually, of 
which about one-third is sold. During the autumn and 
winter about 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 rebtchiks (hazelfowl) 
are caught, and sold at 7, 10, or 15 kopeks, which at St. 
Petersburg cost 50 kopeks each. The furs fetch the follow- 
ing prices : — Best bear skins, 6 to 7 rs., or 18s. to 11. ; otters, 7 
to 12 rs. or 205. to 33s. ; black fox, 35 to 45 rs., or 51. to 71. ; 
zybelini (sable), 10 to 15 rs., or 30s. to 45s. ; 10 ermine 
skins, 1 to 1J rs., or 3s. to 4s. 6d. ; squirrels, per 100, 6 to 
7 rs. or 18s. to 20s. 

The Zyrian bathes every day, even when outlying in the 
snow and ice of a winter forest. Having lit the fire and put 
the kettle on, he cuts a flat piece of wood into a flesh-scraper. 
In the meantime, his water boils, he strips to the skin, how- 
ever intense the cold may be, and begins by pouring the 
boiling water over himself. While doing so, he scrapes with 
his stick as fast as he can, until the whole surface of the skin 



VOTIAKS AND BESSERMiEXES. 



165 



is in a profuse perspiration. He then dresses himself, and 
lies down in the snow for his night's rest. Physiognomically, 
his type resembles the Finnish; his architecture betrays 
Russian tuition. 

The Zyrians of Archangel hunt less, but are sharp men of 
business, and keep enormous herds of reindeer. .They differ 
from the others by the aquiline shape of their noses, their 
athletic figures, keen glance, and by their cool assurance. 
Their spirit is penetrating and sly, they are indifferent to 
danger, but possessed of extraordinary cupidity. They are 
generally wealthy. Some of them gain by their reindeer as 
much as 30,000 or 40,000 rs. — 5,000/. to 6,000/. per annum, 
and an annual income of 800/. is a common matter with 
them. 

They number about 12,000 souls. 

THE VOTIAKS AND BESSERMAEXES (230,000), 

of whom 220,000 live in Viatka in compact masses, and 
9000 in Kazan. Their three tribes are the following : — 

1st. Votiaks (malmyisko-sarapulski), who have preserved 
their old customs and language, and are excessively 
dirty. 

2nd. Votiaks (glasovsko-sarapulski), who have approached 
the Eussian element, as regards exterior, dress, cus- 
toms, and language. 

3rd. Votiaks (yelabniski), who betray Tartar influence 
in language and morals. They also are very dirty. 
Their hair is fair (reddish), and their eyes light- 
coloured. They occupy themselves with agriculture, 
manufacture of mats and sacks of bark, hunting of 
squirrels, and minding their numerous beehives. They 
are never idle. The language nsed by them is har- 
monious, but poor. They have taste for music and 
sing for ever ; their improvised songs, are however, to 
all appearance, utterly devoid of sense. 



166 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



There are living amongst them a certain number of 
Bessermaenes (about 5000). 

THE OUGRIAN OR OUGRIC PEOPLES. 

These peoples are Voghuls and Ostjaks, and descendants 
of the ancient Ougrians, to whom the Madgars or Madgyars 
(Hungarian- Magyars) stand in more or less near relationship, 
and inhabit the northern part of the Ural Mountains and the 
territory of the Obi and Irtysh. 

THE VOGHULS (7000 SOuls). 

Once under the name of " Mansy," wild and turbulent, 
they are now peaceable and submissive. Christianity was 
introduced amongst them upwards of 100 years since, but 
they are now only Christians by name. They are distrustful 
and disposed to resistance, but, when treated with justice and 
humanity, will serve a stranger well enough. Only the 
Voghuls of the Lovsa and the Pelym may be called true 
Voghuls. Essentially hunters, their business season begins 
with winter. They are taciturn, and always gloomy in ex- 
pression, even when dancing or drunk. This Voghul may 
on the whole be called a refractory individual. 

THE OSTJAKS (23,000 SOuls). 

They are the easternmost Finnish tribe, and live within 
the mighty river-net of the Obi and Irtysh. Their language 
is an Ougro-Ostjak branch of the Finnish idiom. Each of 
the three tribes called the Ostjaks of the Irtysh, — of the 
Upper and of the Lower Obi, — speaks its own dialect. 

1st. The Ostjaks of the Irtysh strongly betray Russian 
influence. They were baptized long since, and are 
devotedly attached to the Russian- Greek Church. 
Strictly believing in Christ's doctrine, they yet betray 
no precise knowledge of it. 

2nd. The Ostjaks of the Obi have preserved their dialect 
in a purer condition. In the country honest, good, 



FINNISH TRIBES OF THE VOLGA. 



167 



and sober, they get easily spoilt by the contact with 
town life. They are rather feebly constituted, lazy, 
and sickly in appearance. Their complexion is a pale 
yellow, and they have small eyes, round and flat faces 
and flat noses. They let their shaggy black hair 
tumble about their heads indiscriminately. The beard 
is unmercifully pulled out by the root. The women 
are still dirtier and uglier than the men, and their 
houses indescribably filthy. They are withal a jolly 
lot, full of songs and familiar loquacity, and their 
smile is frank and pleasant. Spirits and tobacco are 
their greatest delight. 

The name " Ostjak" is thought to be derived from 
" Ass-yakh " (men from the Obi), or from " Ariakhi " 
— numerous (from " ar " = many, and " kho " = man). 
Their conquerors, the Tartars, called them Oushtjaks, 
contemptuously implying their being brutal savages 
or barbarians. It is singular, that besides the Russians 
and Tartars, none of their neighbours call them Ost- 
jaks. The Samoyedes know them by the name of 
" Taga." They have many Tartar customs. Their 
titles and the women's costumes are Tartar, and alto- 
gether the Tartar influence is far more apparent than 
the Russian. 

THE FINNISH TRIBES OF THE VOLGA. 

THE TCHEREMISS (210,000 SOllls). 

They inhabit the territories of the Governments of Vjatka 
(100,000), of Kazan (90,000), of Kostroma (4000), of Neezh- 
nei-Novgorod (7000), of Perm (6000), and of Orenburg 
(3000). Part of them live in the mountains and the others 
in the plains near the Volga. The former are active and 
industrious, well-made, and their faces, though pale, not 
disagreeable. The latter are dark and small, but gifted with 
extraordinary keen organs of sight and hearing. Their 
character is phlegmatic. 



168 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The Tcheremiss of the hills are very different from those 
of the steppes, with whom they never intermarry. Their 
dialect is harmonious in sound, and in that respect far supe- 
rior to that of the Tcheremiss of the plains. Both dialects 
contain many Tartar words. The young girls wear their hair 
in two tresses, which hang down their backs, but the married 
women invariably hide away theirs. On the whole slow and 
rather dull, the Tcheremiss are capricious, vindictive, and 
obstinate, but true and honest. Passionately fond of their 
forests, and persevering hunters, they are in high request as 
forest-guards. The Tcheremiss of the mountains are zealous 
Christians of the Russian Church, those of the steppes are 
(one half of them) Pagans as yet. 

• THE MORDVINS OR MORDVA (700,000 SOllls). 

They inhabit the Governments of Pensa (150,000), of Sim- 
birsk (J 30,000), of Saratov (100,000), of Samara (140,000), 
of Neezhnei-Novgorod (70,000), of Tambov (75,000), of 
Kazan (17,000), of Orenburg (17,000), and of Astrakhan 
(800), and are divided into two tribes : of Erza and of Mok- 
sha, of which each has its particular dialect. 

The name " Mordva " is derived from " mourk " (man), and 
il va " (water). They are the southernmost Finns or Tchouds, 
but in most parts so russified that their ancient type can 
hardly be recognized. Those of Erza have preserved the 
Finnish type and structure. They have fair or reddish hair. 
The Moksha are dark, and their spare beard shows an ad- 
mixture of the Tartar type. They are honest, industrious, 
and hospitable, but taciturn and irritable, and less firm than 
the Tcheremiss. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE TARTARS OF RUSSIA. 

THE TCHOUVASHES (670,000). 

They inhabit the Governments of Kazan (400,000), Sim- 
birsk (125,000), Samara (70,000), Orenburg (40,000), 
Saratov (20,000), Perm (15,000). Their blood is a mixture 
of Finnish and Tartar elements, and it is even probable that 
the remnants of the ancient Bulgars of the Volga have been 
gradually absorbed by this tribe. Although in exterior 
qualities differing from the real Tartars, their language is 
altogether that of the latter nation. The Tchouvash is thin 
and fair, and of lesser size than the Tartar. He is timid and 
shy, and retreats before the Russian, of whose language he 
knows but little. His costume, however, is that of the latter. 
The Tchouvashes were baptized in 1743, but their religion 
betrays nevertheless traces of Islamism and Paganism. They 
live in forests and solitary places, where they need not fear 
the approach of strangers. Their songs are simple and 
natural. 

They are less cleanly than the Tcheremiss, lazy and bad 
farmers, and therefore poor, notwithstanding the great fer- 
tility of their soil. 

THE BASHKIRS, MESHTCHERIAKS, AND TEPTIARS (600,000) 

inhabit the Governments of Orenburg (500,000), of Perm 
(60,000), of Samara (25,000), and of Viatka (15,000), the 
Meshtcheriaks (125,000) indiscriminately living amongst 



170 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



them. Both are placed under Cossack supervision, and 
assist the latter in their toilsome frontier service. They are 
divided into twenty-eight cantonments, their territory being 
situated between the Ural, the river Ural, the great Ik, the 
Bjelaya, and the Kaspa. Their country is fertile, but the 
climate is severe, owing to the great heat of summer and 
frightful winters. They are Tartars, with an admixture of 
Finnish and Mongolian elements. The Meshtcheriaks are 
Mohammedans, and far cleanlier in their habits than the 
others. They were formerly in constant warfare with the 
Kirghiz. They have round faces, dark complexions, a wide- 
awake look out of their grey or dark eyes, brown hair, 
medium-sized mouth and nose, projecting cheek-bones, big 
ears, and little beard. There are few pretty women amongst 
them. Their maladies are principally the small-pox (which 
carries off many, rendering the survivors truly hideous), and 
diseases of the eyes produced by the dust and wind of the 
steppe. They lead a nomadic life, and though obliging and 
willing to serve, make but indifferent soldiers. They are 
however robust and splendid riders, and now armed like the 
Cossacks. Their villages have schools, and civilization is 
slowly progressing amongst them. Horse-theft is their 
delight ; they are fond of liquor, but cannot easily procure 
it. Milk, sour cheese (krut), the "inakkan" (hash of beef 
and horse), but particularly the " bishbarmak," are their 
favourite dishes. The latter is a hash of meat mixed with 
flour. Their drinks are vodka, kumyss, airan, kvass, and 
bouza (beer). The language of the Bashkirs is a Tartar 
dialect ; their songs, couplets, invariably composed of but 
four verses. 

The airs are melancholy, and the notes rather dragging, 
but the effect is not disagreeable. Islamism is still the 
dominant religion, but there are also many Christian con- 
verts. The old men are often truly pious, but they are never 
fanatics. Superstition has great sway over them. They 
pretend to have books printed in hell. He who can read 
them knows the past, present, and future, and can perform 



THE GENUINE TARTARS. 



171 



miracles by the help of spirits and demons. The} T tremble 
in the presence of their magicians, who are also their medical 
advisers. The Mohammedans belong to the Sunnite sect, 
and believing themselves particularly favoured by heaven, 
commit the most daring deeds and consider death a gain. 
They are enthusiastic fatalists. The clergy, divided into 
three categories, i.e., the " Akhouns, Mollahs, and Azant- 
cheis," stand under the authority of the Tartar Mufti of Oufa. 
Their mosques are exceedingly simple. Polygamy (four 
wives only) is allowed, but they are too poor to profit by 
the permission to its full extent. Their funeral ceremonies 
always wind up with a race. 

The Teptiars and Bobyles (275,000) are representants of 
the Tcheremiss, Yotiaks, Tartar, and Tchouvash types. The 
Teptiars are nearly all Mohammedans and closely related to 
the Tartars. The Finnish element predominates with the 
Bobyles. 

THE GENUINE TARTARS (2,200,000). 

"We owe the earliest information on the Turkish or 
" Touran " tribes to the Chinese (b.c. 126). The primitive 
race of the Turks inhabited the western and eastern parts 
of Turkestan, or the Great and Lesser Boukharah, between 
the Caspian Sea and Koukounor in Central Asia, where 
they lived in towns and villages, and occupied themselves 
with agriculture and commerce. They owe their present im- 
portance to the adoption of Islamism. 

Amongst the most ancient known states of Turkestan, 
the most important were Takan (Ta-hia), that of the 
nomadic Kirghiz and that of the Khannsiu, whom the 
Chinese call " Khassaks," the Eussians, however, " Kirghiz- 
Kaissaks." The Mongol tribes, in the fourth and third 
centuries before Christ, lived in subjection to the Turks, 
subsequently, however, Modo-Khan united all the Mongolian 
forces, and reversed that order of things by bringing the 
whole of Turkestan and the Boukharahs (though but for a 
short time) under his rule. The identity of the Khouns 



172 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



(Shuns) and the Mongols remains yet to be proved. The 
" Tou-kin" (Turkish name) are, according to Chinese autho- 
rities, the descendants of the " Hiungnou." Almost all tlie 
words of their language, as preserved by the Chinese, are 
entirely Turkish. In the year a.d. 1100, Yeliss-Dashi 
(of the Kidan dynasty) founded, with Mongolian hordes, 
a great Empire, which he called " Kara-Kitai," and which 
comprised Dzoungary, the Khokand and Tashkent. The 
civilization of the Turks about that time began in consequence 
of the introduction of Islamism. 

At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the great 
Tchinggis-Khan, uniting all the Mongolian tribes, subjected 
the kingdoms of Tangout,Ouigour, Kin, Kara-Kitai, Kharezm, 
and all territory and peoples between his Empire and the 
Caucasus. After his death the vast Empire was divided 
between his four sons. The eldest, Dshoutchi, reigned over 
the western kingdom of Kiptchak. Ugaetaei, successor and 
third son of Tchinggis-Khan, extended the conquests of his 
father by sending (in 1236) his nephew Batii or Baty, son of 
Dshoutchi, against the eastern nations of Europe. This chief, 
at the head of 500,000 warriors, overran the whole of Kussia 
as it then was, and penetrated even (by way of Hungary) 
into Moravia and Silesia. On the death of Ugaetaei, in 1242, 
Baty returned to Kiptchak, where he joined the great horde 
of the Mongols. His horde (a word derived from the Mongol 
" Ordo," yourte) was known under the name of " Golden 
Horde," and occupied the whole kingdom of Kiptchak, and 
the territory between the Dnjepr, the Ural, the Black, and the 
Caspian Seas. 

In the meantime, Koujouk, son of Ugaetaei, had succeeded 
his father, and was followed by his nephew Moengghe. 

In the year 1260, Khoubilai usurped the throne, which 
irregular act caused a declaration of independence on the part 
of all the native Princes, amongst whom foremost was Baty. 
Henceforth, therefore, the Golden Horde remained in the 
hands of the house of Dshoutchi. 

During the reign of Baty's third brother, Moengghe- 



THE TARTAR " HORDES. 55 



173 



Taemur (Mengghe-Timour) Islamism spread rapidly through- 
out the horde, and "became general under Ousbek. Moengghe- 
Taemur was succeeded by two Khans, i.e., ISTogai, the younger 
brother of Baty, and his son Touda-Mangou. Nogai made 
himself master of all the horde, but was deposed by his 
nephew, Tokkta, son of Moengghe'-Taemur, and fled to the 
Crimea, where he founded the Crimean Khanate. Ousbek 
mounted the throne of Sarai in 1313. The final liberation of 
Russia from the Mongol yoke took place in 1480 in the reign 
of Ivan III. The brave military chief Mamai was Khan of 
the horde in 1370, and ally of Yaghello, of Lithuania. In 
1380 he met with a disastrous defeat at Koulikov on the 
Don, at the hands of Grand Duke Dmitri Donskoi, and his 
rival Tokhtamysh finished his ruin by dispersing the debris 
of the horde. Sarai all this time remained intact. Tokhtamysh 
(1382) marched to Moscow, and defeated and imprisoned 
the Grand Duke in revenge for Koulikov. 

His ambition made him turn next upon the mighty 
conqueror Tamerlan (Timour) of the princely family of 
Tshagatai (who by this time had subjected the Kalmuks, and 
taken Persia, Syria, and the Turkestan), but he was beaten 
and fled. The victor then destroyed Sarai, devastated Kipt- 
chak, and returned to Asia. 

On the death of Timour-Khan, Tokhtamysh returned to 
the Golden Horde, but only to find that Edighi, supported by 
Timour-Koutlouk, had been made Khan. At this time began 
the protracted wars between the Tchinggis-Khanites, of the 
family of Tokhtamysh, against the Timourides, and caused 
(at the end of the fifteenth century) the division of the Golden 
Horde into the Great Horde, the Golden Horde, and those of 
the Crimea and of Kazan. 

Mengli-Ghirei, Khan of the Crimean Horde, utterly de- 
stroyed the Golden Horde in 1502. He had obtained the 
Khanate through the powerful support of the Czar Ivan III., 
who, taking his part against the sons of Hadji- Ghirei, grand- 
son of Tokhtamysh, had made a faithful friend of him for 
life. His descendants, who even to this day are princes, had 



174 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



inherited his hatred of the Tim our ides, and were the final 
cause of their fall. 

In the meantime the debris of the defeated hordes joined 
to the Nogais, had formed the Tartar kingdom of Astrakhan, 
which, in 1554, was annexed by Russia. 

The Crimean Horde, allied to Casimir, of Lithuania, had 
become very powerful under Hadji-Ghirei. After Mengii- 
Ghirei's death they made constant incursions into Russia, 
but were held in check by the Cossacks of the Don and the 
Zaporoghians. They gradually decreased in power, and 
during the reign of Catharine II., in 1783, were incorporated 
with the Russian Empire. 

The kingdom of Kazan was founded contemporaneously 
with that of the Crimea by a Tchinggis-Khanite of the name 
of Oula-Makhmet, who was not of the Tokhtamysh family. 
Defeated by the Timourides, Oula-Makhmet fled to Moscow, 
and afterwards to the Bulgars of the Kama. Kazan, founded 
by Baty, and destroyed by the Russians at the end of the 
fourteenth century, was rebuilt and fortified by Makhmet, 
who united also the inhabitants of ancient Bulgaria. 
Ivan III., profiting by the intestine troubles of the town, 
took Kazan, and placed it under the authority of a Khan, 
who was devoted to his interests, and obliged to declare him- 
self vassal to the Russian Crown and march against the 
Golden Horde. We have seen that the Crimean Tartars did 
the same from another quarter. In the reign of Ivan IV., 
1552, Kazan was taken by assault, after a desperate defence, 
and received from this time a Russian governor, churches, 
convents, &c. The kingdom of Kazan had never had a great 
extent, but it was rich, powerful, and well populated. The 
noblest elements of the Turkish character developed them- 
selves in a high degree amongst the Tartars of Kazan. 

THE NOGAIS (50,000 SOuls). 

Descended from the hordes of Tchinggis-Khan, they are a 
tribe of Tartars, whose veins contain the greatest proportion of 
Mongol blood. They inhabit the Governments of Taurida, 



THE N0GA1S. 



175 



Stavropol, and the territory between the rivers Kuban and 
Lala. Those of the Kuban are divided into five tribes, i.e., 
the Takhtamyshs, Mansourovs, Kiptckaks, Kararuurzas, and 
Naourouzovs. There are now only about 16,500 individuals 
of this tribe in Russia, who are all Mohammedans, and 
occupying themselves with the breeding of cattle and horses. 
In 1860 they were still living, to the number of 40,000, in 
the north-western district of the Azov country, but these, 
together with the Crimean Tartars (80,000), have since 
emigrated to Turkey. It is said, however, that many of them 
have since come back. The Nogai are of middle size, and 
have a good carriage and much native suppleness. Their dark 
complexion is a proof of their pure origin. Their noses are 
well delineated, but slightly turning upwards towards the 
end, which causes the nostrils to seem rather large. They 
have black and bright eyes, very beautiful teeth, but a poorly 
furnished beard. They are very sober, and prefer meat, par- 
ticularly horse flesh, to vegetables. They eat also beef and 
mutton, but hardly any bread at all. They have a kind of 
tea prepared with milk, water, butter, and salt, but their 
favourite beverages are koumyss and airan. 

The koumyss is prepared in wooden tubs of peculiar form. 
A certain quantity of mare's milk is poured in and mixed 
with a little koumyss yeast to accelerate fermentation. The 
tub is kept as warm as possible, and covered with a lid. 
Thus it is left standing for some hours, during which the 
contents of the tub are frequently being stirred and increased 
from time to time by an addition of freshly-drawn mare's 
milk. The longer the koumyss remains standing, the sourer 
and stronger it gets, and, as the process advances, the stirring 
must be more and more actively carried on. An ordinary 
ladle not sufficing, they employ a machine made for the 
purpose. Once arrived at a certain degree of strength, the 
koumyss is lightly covered up. The greatest cleanliness must 
be observed in the making of it, if one wishes to obtain 
a beverage of first quality. It is then very wholesome. 
That of Turkoman manufacture has a smoky flavour, which 



176 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



disagreeably affects the palate of the unaccustomed toper. 
This flavour is caused by some aromatic plants, which those 
people use for fuel, and is much prized by the Turkomans 
themselves. Their koumyss and that of the Kirghiz is 
generally preferred to the Nogai manufacture, as the latter 
tribes are not very particular as regards cleanliness. 

The a airan" is still more indispensable for the Tartars 
than the koumyss. It is made of cow's milk, in small tubs, 
in which it is first boiled, and then allowed to get cool. It 
is then stirred until it is ready for use. From the " airan" 
the Nogai prepare a small kind of cheese, which they find 
very appetizing. The airan does not require either the 
careful attention or the cleanliness which must absolutely 
accompany the brewing of the koumyss ; and is, therefore, 
more adapted to their notions on those qualities, which 
with them are of the haziest kind. The Nogai rarely attain 
a great age, many, in fact, die during adolescence. 

Cutaneous diseases are most frequent with them, and 
their dirty habits, and the use of magic incantations instead 
of medicine, render those complaints still more dangerous. 
They generally buy their wives from the Crimean Tartars 
or in foreign aouls, and pay for them in cows. A good wife 
is worth about 30 cows, or 25Z. The betrothed must not see 
each other until the " Kalym " is entirely paid. " Cash, or 
rather cows down, or no wife," is the rule with them. The 
Tartar and Kalmuk girls are cheaper, because they do not 
wear so well. The marriage ceremonies are very simple. 
The young wife dares not speak to any one but the parents 
and sisters of the husband, and is thereby rendered shy and 
timid. Polygamy is allowed; but the first wife occupies 
always the highest position in the harem. Youth and beauty, 
however, frequently interfere with that rule. Polygamy 
seems necessary for the proper management of household 
affairs, for they have no servants. The wife must do the 
servants' work instead, and her position resembles altogether 
that of Oriental women in general. She is her husband's 
absolute property ; dares not go out without his permission, 



THE NOGAi TARTARS. 



177 



nor eat out of the same plate. The numerical proportion of 
the sexes is in favour of the male. After the death of the 
father, the sons may sell their wives, and even their own 
sisters. A husband cannot sell his wife, but may repudiate 
her, in which case she is not allowed to marry again. If 
legally divorced, however, the wife may be married again, 
but must restore the Kalym. 

The Nogai of the government of Stavropol breed many 
horses in taboons. The horses are of the Kirghiz race, wiry 
and fast, but useless for draught. Their cows give little 
milk, and their race of sheep is very inferior. 

The character of the Nogai is similar to that of the Tartars 
as well as of the Mongols. They have a great respect for 
age, and their customs are patriarchal. They blindly obey 
their chiefs, and are proud of their origin and nationality. 
In their opinion, the preponderance of the Mongol element 
(the oldest and most noble), which they can boast of, elevates 
them above the Tartars. The Nogai character offers some 
strange contradictions. In the character of workmen or 
beggars they will never steal ; but in then capacity as shep- 
herds they cannot resist the temptation of cattle-lifting. 
Apart from this, the Nogai are to be depended on, but hot- 
tempered and vindictive. Only the nobility (Murzas) carry 
arms. They enjoy certain honorary privileges, and never 
mix with the common people. There is also a lesser nobility. 
They have hardly any amusements or games. The dance 
of the men consists in a kind of pantomime, and movements 
of head, hands, and feet, without however stirring from the 
spot. The women neither sing nor dance. Their popular 
songs generally refer to their ancient grandeur. Tobacco is 
an indispensable article of luxury for them. 

The Nogai language is a dialect of Oriental Turkish. 
Their civilization as regards intellectual culture is at a total 
standstill; and the schools are frequented only by those 
who are desirous of becoming Mollahs. The way of teaching 
is very unsatisfactory, heavy, and mechanical, and serves 
more to choke than to develop the germ of intelligence. 

N 



178 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Their religious ceremonies are very complicated, notwith- 
standing the distinctly defined ritualistic boundaries pre- 
scribed by Islamism, and it is even said that they still 
practise Pagan sacrifices. 

THE TARTARS OF THE CRIMEA. 

They are the last tribe that lost their independence to 
Russia, and are even to this day the truest representatives of 
the Tartar race as it 'was when in its glory. Owing to their 
close connection with Turkey, Islamism is with them very 
deeply rooted. In the year 1858 their number amounted 
to 240,000; at the present day but a few are left. The 
others have emigrated to Turkey, according to some prophecy 
which predicted the union of all Mohammedans on Turkish 
ground. They have, however, cause to repent of their rash 
piety, for the holy soil did not offer them anything like what 
they had left behind ; and it is said that they are returning 
in large numbers to the meat-pots of Crimean Egypt. 

These Tartars are of Nogai blood, slight in build, but wiry, 
with a dark yellowish complexion (often passing into copper 
colour), black eyes, small and flat nose, black hair, and 
little beard. The formation of their eyes and temples are 
strikingly peculiar, inasmuch as the latter are very project- 
ing, and make the former appear very deeply set in their 
cavities. The eyes are narrow and long, and turn up slightly 
at the corners towards the arch of the eyebrow. 

The Tartars of the northern mountains of the Crimea, and 
of the steppes and valleys of that part of the country, are 
distinguished from the others by their tall stature, powerful 
frames, and their resemblance to the Tcherkess. Their 
complexion is lighter, they have big and dark eyes, black 
beards and hair. They are a very handsome people. In the 
south of the Crimea they seem to have much Greek blood in 
their veins. They are also tall, strong, and dark (but not 
yellow, like those of the central plains), and have long and 
agreeable faces, straight noses, of sometimes Greek or Roman 
form, an4 black eyes and hair. The form of the Tartar ear 



CRIMEAN TARTARS. 



179 



is very peculiar, and is probably caused by their habit of 
wearing the big sheepskin caps. Thus it happens often that 
the ear is actually broader than it is long. The fairness of 
the skin of their women, who take care never to expose it to 
the air, is really extraordinary. 

As the Koran forbids them the use of wine, these pious 
people drink spirits instead, and in large quantity too. 
They also brew an intoxicating beverage from rice, which at 
times is sweet, at others sour, and is called " bouza," and 
which they are exceedingly fond of. They have also a great 
predilection for camel meat. The Tartars of the plains cut 
the horse meat into long strips, and put it under the saddle 
in order to render it more tender. They are great gamesters. 
Their education consists in being able to read the Koran 
and to write in Tartar. The women are not considered to 
require any education whatever. They marry generally 
between the ages of thirteen and fifteen, but the men rarely 
take a wife before their thirtieth year. Daughters are sold 
by their fathers for money or cattle. Excessive familiarity, 
curiosity, loquacity, cleanliness, and hospitable humour are 
the faults and virtues of the Crimean Tartars. They move 
and work with a certain silent dignity. It is amusing and 
interesting to watch them clean their houses and take care 
of their guests. They give vent to their joyous feelings by 
music and dancing, but each sex by itself. Asiatics dance 
for the pleasure of dancing itself, while the European does 
so more for the sake of his partner. They must pray five 
times a day, and wash face, hands, and feet before each 
prayer. The shaving of the head and trimming of the nails ' 
is done for the sake of cleanliness. They go to the Mosque 
or Messdjid only in the morning on holidays and during 
fast, and before entering must take off every ornament they 
may have about their persons. Then mosques are extremely 
clean, whitewashed, and without ornament, and the floor is 
covered with a felt carpet. Their fasts are very rigorous. 
The Feast of the " Kamazan," or of the apparition ot the 
Koran, is one continuous fast of thirty days. 

N 2 



180 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Many Tartars are sportsmen. In the hills they hunt the 
wolf and the roe; in the plains the hare, partridge, &c. 
They are also passionately fond of falconry, for which they 
train their own birds. 

The southern coast of the Crimea offers a most delightful 
aspect, by its picturesque scenery and the out-door life of its 
inhabitants. In the villages, the women at sunrise come out 
of their houses with jars to draw water. After their 
ablutions the men go to the Mosque, and then to work till 
eight o'clock, when the family assembles at the breakfast 
table. That meal is very simple, and consists of bread, 
onions, and garlic. The men then light their pipes, and 
slowly go to their daily work. The children are very lively, 
and allowed to play to the age of nine or so, but the little 
girls never take part in the games of the boys. They stay with 
their mothers, who gradually initiate them in the household 
duties. Towards noon they repose for about two hours, and 
partake of a meal similar to the breakfast. At sunset all 
work ceases, and everybody goes home. At this hour the 
old and young men sit under the village trees to smoke and 
talk. At the approach of night the call to prayer resounds 
again. Women run for a last draft of water, and all retire 
in peace. 

The Tartars of Lithuania (8000) inhabit the governments 
of Minsk (3000), Vilna (2800), Kovno (400), and in the 
north of Poland (200). They are partly composed of Crimean 
Tartars, who were made prisoners of war and colonized in 
1395, by Vitold, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who also estab- 
lished a body-guard of free Tartar warriors, who still form 
part of the lesser Polish nobility (shlakkta). Although 
married to Polish women of that rank, they still remained 
Mohammedans, and contracted no marriage below their caste, 
so that the Tartar type and martial spirit have been preserved 
by them in all their ancient force. But forty years since 
there still existed a Tartar regiment, the first rank of which 
was armed with pikes, the second consisting of the servants 
of the first, which was entirely composed of nobles. They 



THE TARTARS OF ASTRAKHAN. 



181 



are generally poor, but lead an irreproachable life, as if to 
prove the respect with which they regard the memory and 
escutcheon of their fathers. They are almost exclusively 
engaged in the tanning trade, and altogether a most worthy, 
excellent people, faithful and brave soldiers, modest, sober, 
and discreet in word and deed. Only the educated can read 
Tartar, but without understanding it, and write Russian or 
Polish with Arabic letters. They read the Koran in the 
Russian or Polish translation. 

THE TARTARS OF ASTRAKHAN. 

1. The Koundrovs (11,000) (a Nogai tribe) originally 
came into the country in 1740. They had been living for 
centuries with the Kalmuks and Kirghiz, and consequently 
lost their primitive type, which had become Kalmuk. They 
live now in the governments of Krasnojarsk and Astrakhan, 
surrounded by Russian peasants, Kalmuks and Kirghiz, 
and call themselves " Karagatch "or " Kara-agatch " (Black 
tree). They are nomadic, and keep camels and oxen. Like 
the Nogai, they are not cleanly, though hospitable, and have 
little compassion for the poor and wretched. Being but 
lake warm readers of the Koran, their Mollahs are held in 
little respect. 

The price of a wife is from 50 to 1000 roubles, an exorbi- 
tant sum, when one considers the simplicity of their habits, 
but not difficult to explain. A family of five persons cannot 
do with less than £15 per annum, to which sum must be 
added £3 for Government taxes. In order to make up that 
sum, or 115 roubles, he must sell a camel (25 rs.), 2 horses 
(50 rs.), 1 ox (25 rs.), 5 goats (5 rs.), and 5 sheep (10 rs.). 

2. The Yourtovs and Yemeshnis (10,000) are also Nogai, 
and descended from the Golden Horde of Astrakhan. They 
are industrious and honest, but timid and very credulous. 
Their features are regular, and amongst the female sex may 
even be seen sometimes very pretty faces, but their habit of 
rubbing the skin with fatty substances, and the hot climate 
gives them a prematurely aged appearance. These Tartars 



1S2 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



are dignified in appearance and movements. They speak the 
Russian language tolerably well, and passionately love 
gambling and music, which consists with them in exceedingly 
pleasing ditties. 

The Tartars of the Boukharah, Gkilian, and Agryjan (600) 
are the descendants of merchants from Boukharah, Khiva, 
and Persia, who were attracted to Astrakhan during the 17th 
century. 

THE EARAPALKAS OR KARAPAKHS. 

Their name signifies " Black Caps," and their country is 
the Isthmus between the Caspian and Aral Seas, and the 
Oust-Ourte (highland). They came under Russian rule in 
1827. There are also some of these people in the Pashalik 
of Akhaltsik (Trans- Caucasia). They are splendid riders 
and plucky soldiers. 

The Tartars of Kazan and Orenburg (1,140,000) are 
somewhat mixed up with Finnish elements, and there are 
individuals amongst them of a decidedly Finnish type, and 
again, such as might be taken for Caucasians. The women 
are slight and delicate, and both sexes possess great sup- 
pleness and grace. Their dress is of a highly expensive 
kind. 

They are industrious, particularly at their national trade, 
the preparation of skins ; manufacture also Morocco leather, 
and even work in the mines. Their nankins and soaps are 
celebrated. The Tartar idiom spoken by their tribe is the 
purest of all Turkish dialects spoken in Russia, and has pro- 
duced a literature by no means despicable. They are an 
affable, gentle, honest, sober, and very cleanly people, so 
that they are much in request everywhere. Their family 
life is exemplary, and their children are carefully educated. 
They thirst for advancement in civilization, but their religion 
prevents them exceeding a certain point, while, however, it. 
encourages the preservation of genuine Tartarism. 

The Russian nobility counts several distinguished families 
of purely Tartar origin. 



SIBERIAN TARTARS. 



183 



Though most zealous Mohammedans, their Mollahs are 
little instructed. These Tartars are spread over many of the 
governments of Russia, and live in Samara (105,000), Sim- 
birsk (85,000), Viatka (80,000), Saratov (50,000), Pensa 
(45,000), K Novgorod (37,000), Perm (35,000), Tambov 
(13,000), Rjazan (5500), St. Petersburg (3500), Kostroma 
(300), Moscow (300), and amongst the Donski Cossacks 
(600). 

The Siberian Tartars of the governments of Tobolsk and 
Tomsk (40,000) offer no particularly characteristic traits, and 
have adopted Russian customs. Their occupation is the 
breeding of cattle, some agriculture and carriage of mer- 
chandise. 

The Tourals are the westernmost tribe of all, and most 
resemble the Tartars of Kazan. They speak a superior 
dialect, although they are in the habit of borrowing from the 
Russian and Voghul languages. 

The Barabints live between the Obi and Irtysh. Of a livid 
complexion and resembling the Mongolian race, they have 
little intellectual capacity ; are, however, gentle and phleg- 
matic. Although they have received the baptism of the 
Christian Church, they secretly continue to practise Sha- 
manism. 

The Obi Tartars inhabiting that river near Narym are 
Christians. 

The Tckoulyms of the Tchoulym river are also Christians, 
and renouncing their primitive language and customs, have 
become altogether Russified. 

The Boukhars and Tashkents (9000) are mostly rich mer- 
chants, residing in the commercial towns on the South 
Siberian frontier, in the government of Tobolsk. 

The Tartars of the Yenisseisk government (22,000) are 
composed of three tribes — i.e., of the Katchints, Sagaites, 
Kaibals, of which the two last show a strong admixture of 
the Finnish and Samoyede elements. The first live in the 
district of Minoussinsk, a district most interesting to ethno- 
logists, on account of the numerous mementos it offers of 



184 



TEE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



primitive inhabitants altogether different from those of the 
present day. 

That people, almost entirely unknown as yet, were the 
Tchouds, and the numerous objects of sculpture and inscrip- 
tions on the enormous blocks of stone, of which their turnu- 
lous monuments had been composed, are proofs of a certain 
culture. Many precious mementos have been lost to science 
owing to the cupidity of the native tribes, but the archaeolo- 
gist may yet meet with a rich treasure in those ancient granite 
tombs. The sculptured figures which had stood on the tops 
of the tombs generally represent men, animals, and birds, 
but nobody has as yet succeeded in deciphering the inscrip- 
tions. 

These Tchouds had been probably driven out of their 
original country by other neighbours, who also have left 
their own particular traces ; for in some places on the banks 
of the Yenissei and the Touba have been found many inscrip- 
tions altogether different from those of the Tchouds, and 
which seem to belong to the time of Tchinggis-Khan. Rem- 
nants of the wild hordes of Asia still roam about Siberia, and 
are called Tartars, although they are not all of Turkish 
origin, but are strongly mixed with Finnish and Mongolian 
elements. We know little about these tribes errant, and the 
chances of a closer acquaintance are daily diminishing, owing 
to the growing Russian colonization, which threatens soon 
to absorb all these tribes within its own numbers. 

In the districts Minoussinsk and Atchinsk live about 4000 
Katchints. 

The Saga'ites (11,500) live on the banks of the Abakan 
river. One of the tribes, the " Belters," were originally 
Finns. Though speaking a Tartar dialect, their physiogno- 
mical characteristics betray generally the Russian and scarcely 
ever the Tartar or Mongolian type. They always give their 
children two names, of which one is Christian and the other 
Pagan. They are industrious and honest, and, like the 
Finns, never steal, but are hard drinkers. 

The Kaibals are a nomadic tribe, and roam about the ter- 



THE KAl'LBALS, KATSHINTS, AND KIZILTS. 185 

ritory on the right bank of the Lower Abakan, Yenissei', and 
Sogda. Numbering about 1100 souls, they are of the Tartar 
type, but their language is Saruoyedish. They believe them- 
selves to be the most ancient people of the country. All 
these Tartars have black hair, and under their flashing black 
eyes a protuberance, which tends to make the nose appear 
reverted and pointed, and their nostrils unnaturally enlarged. 
Their beautiful eyebrows, little mouths, fine lips, and white 
teeth are not sufficient to relieve the hideousness of the fea- 
ture described. Their aspect is truly repulsive, and if by 
chance a pretty woman is seen amongst them, she will gene- 
rally be found to be of Tartar blood, while they are themselves 
principally of Samoyede extraction. 

They are of small stature and stout, dark, but of high 
colour, which (though natural to them) is still further 
enlivened by rouge. They dress and trim their hair according 
to the Russian fashion, but have little beard. The women 
dress in the Mongol style, and are burdened with all the 
hard work, while the lazy husbands sit by the fire and 
smoke. The poor women's lot is hard in the extreme, and 
they are very submissive, for the incensed husband has the 
right to kill his wife with impunity. Their songs are gene- 
rally improvised ballads of an ear-splitting nature ; and the 
musical instruments consist of a sort of balalaika of three 
strings, called "kobyss," and the ''djytagan," which is a 
flat and thin board on which are strung seven cords. Their 
dances are mere clumsy imitations of the movements of 
animals, such as the bear, wolf, &c. Simple like children, 
they are diffident, like all people that have suffered much. 
Incapable of great crimes, they look on theft and deception 
as indications of a superior spirit and ability. 

The Katchints are the richest and most honest of these 
Tartars, distinguished by their loyalty and hospitality, and 
preserve their good humour and cordiality even when in a 
state of intoxication. 

The Kizilts are a dishonest people, and have very dirty 
habits. 



186 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



While the Belters may be called the most respectable of all 
the tribes, the Sagaites are the most careless. 

The Kamassints form three oulousses (parishes), according 
to nationality — i.e., that of Outshouruakov, of Abalakov, and 
of Agulsk, of which the first are entirely Tartar, and com- 
posed of the people once inhabiting the banks of the Katcha, 
near Krasnojarsk, i.e., " Tartar Katchints." Those of the 
Onlouss Abalakov, or of the forests, are of Samoyede origin. 

The Kamassints of Agulsk (seventy), from the river Agul, 
are neither Tartars nor Samoyedes, but remnants of the 
ancient " Kottes," and of the same origin as the ancient 
Assans. They have adopted the Russian language, religion* 
and style of living. 

The Karagass, the easternmost of the Finno- Samoyede 
race, is the tribe that succumbed to the powerful influence of 
the Tartar-Katchints, and were already Tartars, when they 
established themselves in their present territory of Neezknei- 
Oudinsk. If the Finno- Samoyede origin has made them 
hunters (which Tartars never are), they betoken their trans- 
formation by their language, customs, religious creed, and 
costume. There are only 500 of them left. They are of 
middle size and good constitution, but not robust. They 
have small heads, narrow shoulders and hips, tiny hands and 
feet, black and straight hair, small eyes, low foreheads, and thin 
noses, and resemble somewhat the Kirghiz-Kaissaks of the 
Middle Horde. The costume of both sexes is the same with 
the exception of the head-dress. They live by the breeding of 
reindeer and hunting. They are gentle, but fond of liquor. 
The discovery of the East Siberian gold mines Russia owes 
to these people. Although baptized generations ago, they 
are Christians only by name, and formerly worshipped the 
sun, sky, &c, and brought them sacrifices of blood. In 
their country, on the steep banks of the Yenisse'i, idols have 
been disinterred representing animals — as, for instance, the 
" domestic reindeer," which does not exist in those parts at 
the present day. Sometimes it is surmounted by a rider 
dressed in a tight short coat, and wearing a big round hat, 



THE SOJOTES, TELEUTES, &C. 187 



and holding a bow and arrow, made ready, in his hands. In 
other cases the reindeer is represented in a docilely " cou- 
chante " position in front of a man, who is followed by a 
dog. 

The Sojotes (once Samoyedes, now Tartars) live close to 
the Chinese frontier, and have party intermingled with the 
Buriats. Some purely Samoyede vestiges may be met with 
among the Sojotes of the Sayane Mountains. They are 
lamaists. Their attire is of the simplest, and consists of a 
Kirghiz mantle of camel-hair, a kind of cap of horsehair, 
and a round Tartar cap with large borders. The latter are 
commonly called Sayanes. To them belong the recently 
discovered Ouriang-Khal, a tribe of high interest to the 
ethnologist. 

The Teleutes (2000) inhabit the government of Tomsk, and 
first came to Kussia in 1755, when they settled in the country 
around Tomsk and Kousnetsk. They are also called " White 
Kalmuks," by the Russians Tatar-Teleutes, or Koumandins, 
after the Lake Teletzk and the little river Koumanda, and by 
themselves " Teless." They had fled before the Black Kal- 
muks to their eastern neighbours and brethren in race, the 
Sayanes. They all speak Russian, and number about 2000 
individuals (women not included). 

Physiognomy and costume of the Teleutes on the left bank 
of the Beeya strikingly recall the Finnish and Karelian 
types. The men shave their heads, leaving a tuft only, like ' 
the Chinese. Their women are well made, and smoke like 
the men. They are sharply distinguished from the Tartar 
and Mongols by their ordinary habits. Only a small number 
of them are Christians. 

The Teleutes or Teleugouts of the Upper Mrassa, the 
Kondoma, and the Tom number now about 5000 souls, and 
are on the increase. 

THE TARTARS OF THE CAUCASUS. 

The Russians call all the mountain tribes of the Caucasus 
indiscriminately by the above name. We shall apply the 



188 



THE LAXD OF THE CZAE. 



same only to the tribes of the Turkish race, who, with the 
exception of the Nog&i, inhabit the western coast of the 
Caspian Sea and the eastern provinces of Trans- Caucasia. 
The aborigines of that country are of the Karthle or Geor- 
gian, — the Haikan or Armenian, — and of the Iranian races 
(Pers. and KourcL). During the occupation of Persia by 
the Tartars, the two co-religionary nations had intermarried, 
and it is highly probable that it was their progeny who 
founded the kingdom of Skirvan, on the rich pasture lands 
of the Kour and Arax, and which, though divided into 
several khanats, existed still in our days. 

The first emigration of the Tartar race to the Caucasus 
must have taken place after the destruction of the kingdom 
of Khovaresm by the hordes of Tchinggis-Khan, and after 
the alteration of the course of the River Amou-Daria (once 
flowing into the Caspian, now discharging into the Aral Sea), 
had damaged the climatic conditions of their country, and 
forced the inhabitants of those parts to evacuate their old 
haunts, and go in search of other and better pasture lands. 

The cruel conqueror iSadyr-Shah forced the Tartars of 
the Caucasian plains into the Mohammedan sect of the 
Shiites, whilst their brethren, who lived in the mountains, 
remained Sounnites. They were for a long time the pre- 
dominant nation of the Caucasus, but their power gradually 
fell into decay, and in the reign of Peter the Great the Sharu- 
khal of Tarku and the khans of Derbent and Baku swore 
fealty to the Russian crown. The khans of Shirvan, Sheki, 
Gandja, Karabagh, and others followed their example, 
during the reign of the Empress Catherine II. At a later 
period they forgot their oath, however: but Tsitsian, Prince 
of Georgia, at the head of Russian trooj^s, brought them 
again under the Russian rule. In 1813 Persia solemnly ceded 
to Russia the khanates of Karabagh, Gandja, Sheki, Shir- 
van, Derbent, Baku, Kouba, and Talysh, and abstained 
from all influence in the Daghestan, Georgia, Imeretia, and 
Abkhazia. 

Including the 95,000 souls of the Stavropol government, 



THE TARTARS OF THE CAUCASUS. 



1S9 



and 5000 Turkomans, the Tartar population of the Caucasus 
numbers about 900,000 individuals. 

Owing to political, climatical, and local influences the 
Caucasian Tartars are considerably distinguished from all 
other representatives of that race. The recollection of their 
past greatness and of the important part their nation had 
played in the destinies of the world, has prevented them from 
sinking below a certain level; but the Persian influence, 
which once was so powerful, has tended more than any thing- 
else to metamorphose the primitive character of the Tartars. 

The Koumyks, who inhabit the territory of the lower 
Terek and Soulak rivers, have been Russian subjects ever 
since the reign of Peter the Great, and with the Karat- 
chais (2000), the Malkars, Ourousps, Tcheghem, Khoulam, 
Beringhei, and Balkars (9000), as well as with the Nogai of 
the Kouban (16,500), have adopted the customs of the 
mountaineers, with w r hom they have come into repeated 
contact. The same may be said of the Koumyks of the 
Sharnkhal of Tarku (vassals of the Russian crown), and of 
the inhabitants of the khanate of Mekhtoula, who speak the 
Koumyk language, which is a particular Tartar dialect. 

The following description of the character of the Cau- 
casian Tartar refers to the individuals belonging to the 
compact mass of Tartars inhabiting, nearly exclusively, 
the eastern provinces of Trans-Caucasia — i.e., those of 
Baku (100,000), Daghestan (75,000), Erivan (100,000), and 
Tiflis (50,000). They are the proudest of all the Russian. 
Tartars, and if Persian influence has made them acquainted 
with divers serious vices, it has also civilized them more 
than any of the Caucasian Mussulmans. 

The population of the above enumerated provinces must 
have been far more numerous, before the Mongol invasion, 
than it is now. The proof of this supposition will be readily 
found in the imposing ruins of very large towns, and of 
several gigantic aqueducts, which traversed the valleys of 
the Kour, of the i£rax, and the steppe of Mugansk. These 
territories, once deprived of irrigation, were quickly burnt 



190 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



up and transformed into arid deserts. The stagnant waters 
engendered malaria and venomous miasma, before the 
baneful effects of which the once opulent population rapidly 
receded. 

The Tartars are the most productive, industrious, and 
important element of the Caucasian races. They are well 
made, and have agreeable features, big eyes, dark com- 
plexions, and noses of the Roman type. The women are 
finely proportioned, slender and elegant, and their charms 
are much enhanced by a beautiful costume. The latter 
consists of a short gold-embroidered tunic, clasped by a 
belt woven with gold or silver wire, and often studded with 
turquoises and other gems. The chemise is of red silk, and 
slightly open in front. They wear exceedingly large and 
loose pantaloons, and coloured stockings of fine wool. The 
young girls wear their rich black hair in long drooping 
curls, which fashion favourably heightens the expression of 
their handsome faces, especially while executing their grace- 
ful, passionate " pas a deux." Although the Koran severely 
enjoins the women covering their faces to profane eyes, 
they yet understand well enough to show off their attractive 
qualities — in fact, quite as well as any of our own beauties. 
They are extremely fond of dress and pleasure. Full of 
life and animal spirits, and of keen comprehension, they do 
not remain behind any of their European sisters with regard 
to chat and gossip. The laws and customs of the Mussul- 
mans keep the women in deplorable ignorance ; they have 
therefore no other vent for this mental activity but the 
wretched trivialities of the harem. If they could be instructed, 
they would doubtless prove a great ornament to society by 
their beauty and natural intellectual gifts. They resemble the 
Polish ladies in looks and figure, but a Trans- Caucasian sun 
has given them a still warmer blood. 

The Shiite Tartars of Trans- Caucasia, like the Persians, are 
smooth-tongued and crafty courtiers, even to intimate friends, 
and always, at least on the surface, your devoted servants. 
Closely tied to each other by language and religion, they 



THE TURKOMANS. 



191 



have, notwithstanding the Persian influence, preserved a con- 
siderable share of their primitive national character, and 
possess to this day much of the lofty pride and impetuous 
courage of their forefathers. They are conscious of their 
descent from Tamerlan and Tchinggis-Khan, and proudly 
remember the greatness and power of their nation in days 
gone by. Unfortunately, however, that does not cure them 
of their vicious propensities, such as insincerity and disregard 
of those moral laws which constitute the honour and dignity 
of man. They stimulate sensuality by the excessive use of 
the narcotic " tariak," which irritates the nerves and troubles 
the brain. Hospitality in times of peace, and courage in 
battle, are their greatest virtues. Excess, vindictiveness, 
superstition, indifference to, and cool treatment of, their 
wives, especially when under the influence of tariak, and un- 
reasonable jealousy, are the dark shades of their character. 
Like all Mussulmans, they often marry several wives. Thus 
it frequently happens that these spirited, peppery creatures 
disagree, and their lord is called upon to decide between them 
and restore peace. Of course he cannot deliver a judgment 
pleasant to all the parties, and the matter generally ends by 
the whole harem turning upon him and making his life so 
wretched that he is fairly driven from the house, and on 
some pretence or other goes travelling for some time. It 
is even said that such scenes send many pilgrims to Mekka 
who otherwise would gladly stay at home. 

THE TURKOMANS. 

This tribe, numbering about 2000 families, or kibitkas, is 
composed of about 1500 families of the ancient Turkish 
race of the Caucasus, and about 500 kibitkas of Astrakhan 
Tartars, and roam about the territory situated north-west of 
the Caspian Sea — i.e., between the northern frontier of Persia, 
the Caspian Sea and kingdom of Khiva, as well as the deserts 
separating Khiva from the Boukharah. They are persuaded 
that they are descended from the chief of a great race, of the 
name of " Turk," who, they say, inhabited the Arabian desert 



192 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



at the time of Mohammed, and subsequently emigrated to the 
Amou-Daria, where he took a foreign wife, with whom he 
had eight sons, who became chiefs of eight tribes. From 
him, according to their ideas, descended the Turkomans, for 
" Turk man " means, " I am a Turk," or " descendant of 
Turk." 

Two of those tribes are called Seilkhans (Sioui-ounkhins 
or Semkhis) and Khassans, after one of their khans of the 
name of " Khassan." The Kalmuks also introduced a num- 
ber of Turkomans into the country occupied by the Hord of 
Boukejev. The new emigrants, troubled by the Kirghiz - 
Kaissaks, went westward, but, again opposed by the Kkivans, 
retreated to the desert Oust-Ourte. From there they sent 
(1801) deputies to Astrakhan, and the Eussians having ad- 
mitted them subjects to their Crown, in the year 1803, they 
constructed a fort at Manghyshlak. In 1811 the Turkomans 
asked permission to emigrate to Astrakhan, but meeting with 
difficulties, in the years 1813-15, came voluntarily to settle 
in the Khouudrov- Tartar territory, and have ever since gone 
by the name of " Turkomans of Manghyshlak." They are of 
middle size, but strong, hardy, and of swarthy complexion. 
Owing to their residence amongst the Kalmuks, they have 
lost the regularity of their features. They are Sounnites, and 
keep strictly to their ancient customs and patriarchal style of 
living. 

THE KIRGHIZ -KAISSAKS (1,450,000). 

The people who go by the above appellation amongst 
foreign nations ignore the name altogether, and invariably call 
themselves " Kazak or Khassak." By their number and the 
extent of country they occupy, they are entitled to hold the 
first rank amongst all the Tartars of Russia in the considera- 
tion of the world. The Kirghiz Steppe is a vast plain, low, 
sandy, and studded with small lakes and ponds containing 
salt water, an arid desert exposed to the rigor of a Siberian 
climate. It is, however, hilly and fertile on its margin, 
especially in the northern and southern parts. The former 



THE KIRGHIZ-KAlSSAKS. 



193 



is the most fertile region ; the latter has no trees, but well- 
watered prairies, especially adapted for grazing vast herds 
of cattle. The eastern section of its fertile belt is rich in 
luxuriant valleys, intersected by deep rivers, and the natural 
girdle of the basin of the Issy-Koul (hot lake), 5000 feet above 
the sea level, offers the grandest spectacle of a sublime 
mountain world. The frontier line of the Kirghiz territory, 
starting at Omsk, its north-eastern extremity, and mounting 
the left bank of the Irtysh, follows that river to Nor-Zaissan 
(Lake of Zaissan). Running off from here in a southern 
direction, it touches on the country of Tchougoutchak, Ak- 
Kend and Kouldja, until it reaches the Issy-Koul. Em- 
bracing the upper course of all the rivers feeding the lake 
Balkhash, it continues to the Tckou-River, which it follows 
to Tele-Koul, until, above the fort Perovski (Ak-Metshet) it 
comes upon the Syr-Daria river, which it pursues as far as 
the Aral Sea. Between that and the Caspian Sea lies the 
desert Oust-Ourte, which, forming an undefined frontier, ex- 
tends along the north-west coast of the Caspian Sea and the 
river Ural to the land of the Orenburg and Siberian Cossacks. 

The Kirghiz, or Khassaks, form a branch of the great 
Tartar or Turkish family. During the supremacy of Tching- 
ghis-Khan and his successors, they received amongst their 
number several foreign peoples, of which the names are still 
extant in some of the tribes, and became very powerful under 
the Khan Arsslan at the beginning 6f the fourteenth century. 

The conquest of Siberia touched them all the nearer home, 
as the last Khan of Siberia was one of their nobles, a Kirghiz - 
Kaissak. Towards the middle of last century, and after the 
disunion of the Dzoungar people, they began to inove east- 
ward. Up to the end of last century their history consisted 
only in warlike expeditions against that people. During the 
latter part of the seventeenth century lived their celebrated 
Khan Tiavka (son of Djanggher), to whom they owe a code of 
laws, and who ruled more by his wisdom and gentle genius 
than by force and violence. It was he who first appointed 
chiefs for each horde. 



194 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Intestine disturbances and wars with their neighbours, 
particularly with the Dzoungars, who spread terror even into 
Russia and China, are the principal events of their history 
signalizing the beginning of last century. 

Desirous of procuring the aid of Eussia against their 
enemies, they recognized the sovereignty of Peter the Great. 
In consequence of this they were not molested for some time 
by their old enemies, until they, presuming on their power, 
managed to make themselves so obnoxious to their nei°:k- 
hours, that the latter, at last uniting their forces, turned 
upon and nearly annihilated them. They then applied 
again to the Russians, although in reality opposed to that 
people, who were their political and religious enemies, and 
who exercised a severe check on their wild and depredatory 
habits. Only as late as the year 1730 the crafty Khan Abul- 
Khair, in the name of the Little and Middle Hordes, swore 
the oath of fealty to the Empress Anne, while the Great 
Horde, though under subjection to the Dzoungars, extended 
its power in the south in the direction of Turkestan. After 
the death of Khoung-taidchi (Grand Duke) Galclan Tsyren 
the Dzoungar people split up into many factions and became 
paralyzed by disunion. The great Horde therefore easily 
succeeded in the year 1756 and 1757 to shake off the yoke 
of the Dzoungars, and in 1771 fought under Oubashi against 
the Torgouts. Abul-Khair had in the meantime repeatedly 
broken his oath of allegiance to the Russian Crown. 

The Kirghiz do not represent the pure Tartar or Turkish 
type. The Mongol type is the predominant, but by its side 
will be sometimes found the true characteristics of the ancient 
Turk. The latter type is, however, strictly confined to the 
nobility. 

THE LITTLE HORDE (850,000) 

Consists of 200,000 Kibitki, forming three principal sub- 
divisions : the tribe of Alimouli, of Bajouli, and the Semi- 
rodsk (" of the seven tribes"). Although subjected to 
Russia, this is the most warlike horde of the three, and 



THE KIRGHIZ, 



3 05 



stands under the direct surveillance of the Governor- General 
of Orenburg and Samara. The Russian Government levies 
a tax of one rouble and a half on each Kibitka, equal to a 
net total of 100,000 roubles per annum. The territory of 
the Little Horde comprises the land of the Cossacks of the 
Ural and Orenburg, and extends in the East to 83° long., 
and southward to the Sea of Aral and the Syr-Daria, and is 
divided into three districts. 

THE HORDE OF BOUKEJEV. 

This horde occupies the low lands north of the Caspian Sea 
and the country between the Yolga and Ural Rivers. Their 
appearance on this territory took place after the evacuation 
of the same by the Kalmuks, who had emigrated to China 
in 1771. Colonel Popov, Commander of the Astrakhan 
Cossacks, proposed to the Kirghiz Sultan Boukei (son of 
Abul-Khair), to petition the Russian Government for the 
permission to settle in the " Rynnpeski." The concession 
being granted, Boukei came with 1500 Kibitkas, which num- 
ber, however, rapidly increasing, amounted in 1820 already 
to 7500, and in 1862 to 25,000 Kibitkas, or upwards of 
100,000 souls. Their number would be still larger, had it 
not been for the disastrous winter of 1822, when the whole 
steppe was turned to ice, and frightful snow-storms and icy- 
blasts destroyed all animal life. The losses of the horde during 
that dreadful season amounted to 280,000 horses, 73,000 
heads of cattle, and 1,000,000 sheep. Overwhelmed with 
terror, they fled into the Government of Saratov, but have 
been quietly settled again in their old territory since 1863. 

Boukei was elected Khan by the Interior and Little Hordes 
in 1812, and this election was confirmed by the Emperor Alex- 
ander the First. He was succeeded by his son Djanggker, 
who did much for the civilization and colonization of the Khir- 
ghiz. In his veins flowed some of the blood of his ambitious 
and crafty ancestor Tchinggis-Khan. While flattering and 
cajoling the Russians he indulged in dreams of a revival of 
the ancient grandeur of the Mongol conquerors, and keenly 



196 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



watched for an opportunity that should enable him to unite 
his tribes and to create for himself an independent position. 
The Interior Horde is a branch of the Little Horde, and sub- 
divided into nine parts, each of which is ruled by several 
chiefs, who depend on the temporary Council of Chiefs, which 
again stands under the direct authority of the frontier Com- 
mission of Orenburg. The dignity of the Khans ceased in 1845 
withDjangger, whose death took place in that year. Tchinggis, 
his eldest son, as well as his brothers have been raised to the 
rank of Russian princes, and receive a pension, but hold no 
authority in the administration of the country. 

In this manner, it will be seen, that the Eussian Govern- 
ment in abolishing the privileges of caste, of which the aris- 
tocracy (white bone) had for centuries made a cruel use 
against their inferiors in rank, the plebeians (black bone) of 
their people, had morally and materially established a per- 
manent state of legal order. 

The inferior posts are filled by Kirghiz, and the lawsuits 
contending for a sum or value not exceeding thirty roubles 
are decided by Kirghiz judges. Most cases refer to horse- 
lifting, the greatest weakness of the Kirghiz, who moreover 
delight in litigation. The Government levies the taxes of 
the Interior Horde on the herds (18 kopeks per camel, 
14 kopeks per horse, 8 kopeks per sheep). The annual net 
revenues amount to about 90,000 roubles. 

These Kirghiz, like all others, are divided into two castes, 
i.e. nobles (sultans) and common people, or into white and 
black bones, their own term of distinction. 

The Mongol type is the predominant one. Their women 
are ugly and uncleanly. They mount like the men and wear 
the same long coat, large pantaloons and boots, only the head- 
gear is different. They wind a large veil around their heads, 
while the men wear the " thibeteika," a small pointed cap, 
over which is set a white hat of lambskin in form of a cone. 

The only public entertainment of the Kirghiz consists in 
horse-racing, and no ceremony, be it wedding or burial, 
passes unaccompanied by that sport. An enormous concourse 



THE KIRGHIZ. 



197 



of people of both sexes greatly enhances the interest of the 
scene. It is astonishing to see the accuracy with which men, 
and even only half-dressed little urchins about nine years 
old, can calculate the distance a horse can run. If it should 
fall at a short distance from the mark, it is dragged there by 
ropes. A distance of eleven to twelve miles has been run in 
34 min. 40 sees. 

The most curious horse-race is that of the women. An 
Amazon, mounted on a very fast horse, is pursued by the 
best riders, who strive to come up with her, seize her round 
the waist, and pull her off the horse. She defends herself 
against these anything but gallant attacks with a short whip, 
until one of her pursuers manages to get a firm hold of her. 
A very disgusting spectacle offer the camel races : these ani- 
mals run very fast (two versts in 3 min.), but their scream- 
ing and groaning, and the thick foam which they scatter 
from their mouths and noses in every direction, are highly 
offensive to the ears and eyes of the spectator. 

The letters are sent about the steppe by a mounted mes- 
senger, who often rides over a distance of 200 versts (115 
miles) in one day. 

The Kibitkas are made of striped felt, ornamented with 
ribbons, which is pulled over a wooden scaffolding. 

THE MIDDLE HORDE 

Is the most pacific of all, and composed of about 100,000 
Kibitkas (400,000 souls), belonging to the four tribes : 
Arghyn, Naixnan, Kiptchak, and Ouvak-Ghirei. They in- 
habit the land extending from the line of the Irtysh to the 
deserts which separate the Kirghiz steppe from the Khanats 
of Central Asia, and from the Chinese frontier in the East 
to the territory of the Little Horde in the West. 

Their wealth consists in 900,000 horses, 300,000 heads of 
cattle, 3,350,000 sheep, and a moderate number of camels. 

THE GEEAT HORDE (300,000) 

Is composed of 75,000 Kibitkas or 300,000 souls, of which 



198 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



about a third have recognized the Russian supremacy. They 
are divided into four tribes : the Ousyn (Ouissoun), the 
Toulatai, Sargam, and Koukhrat. The tribes that have 
become subjects of the Russian Crown are indiscriminately 
called Ouissouns. Their territory is situated in the south- 
eastern part of the steppe between the frontier of China and 
the Mounts Ala-Tau and Kounghi, and again between the 
Ala-Tau and the Lake Balkhash. The tribes stand under 
their chiefs (sultans), who have to be confirmed by the 
Russian Government. The sultans are all chosen from 
among the descendants of the Khan Ablai, and their power 
is hereditary in the direct or collateral line. They stand 
under the surveillance of the Pristav (Commissary) of the 
Great Horde, who resides at Kopal. 

The Great Horde pays no taxes, but has to furnish relays 
for the Cossack Divisions. It is comparatively poor in beasts, 
owing to the incessant inraids made into their territory by 
warlike neighbours, by whom they have been harassed for 
centuries. It owes its present prosperous state entirely to 
Russia. The Kirghiz -Kaissaks have got neither the broad 
faces of most Tartars, nor the flat ones of the Kalmuks ; but 
their eyes are small and deep set, mouths small, thin cheek- 
bones projecting, and beards sparsely furnished, which 
physiognomical condition is the natural effect of their former 
intimate relations with the Kalmuks, whose women they 
prefer to their own. 

Both sexes enjoy a robust constitution. The men might 
almost be called handsome ; but the women, notwithstanding 
their flashing eyes and fresh-coloured faces, would scarcely 
please European taste, owing to their Kalmuk eyes and 
projecting cheek-bones. Purity of air, a simple style of 
life, an easy mind, and frugal habits, render them capable 
of supporting hunger and thirst for days together ; but they 
make up for such enforced abstinence whenever they have a 
chance. They can then eat a lamb of six months at one 
sitting, and ask for more. Both sexes are excellent riders. 
They never think of washing themselves, and are inveterate 



THE KIRGHIZ. 



199 



smokers ; only the Kirghiz of the Little and Middle Hordes 
prefer the tobacco in the shape of smiff. Small-pox, 
diseases of the eye, and other disorders caused by their dirty 
ways, trouble them severely. Their food consists principally 
of mutton and a kind of sour cheese, which somewhat 
assuages thirst, but they use little salt. The chief beverage 
is the koumyss. 

They like to ornament their saddles and bridles as richly 
as their means will allow them, sometimes even with pre- 
cious stones. Their arms are of very indifferent quality, 
but they are gradually introducing fire-arms. 

Their religious condition is of a deplorable kind. They 
profess Islamism, adulterated by idolatry. Many tribes 
believe in a good God and in an evil God, and adore also 
other spirits ; and magicians are all-powerful with them. 
The Kirghiz think themselves very good Mussulmen, and 
consider all other religionaries to be renegades. They curse 
the She'ites, because they fancy themselves to be Sounnites, 
but they have not the remotest conception of the difference. 
The rich practise polygamy. Never observing fasts or ablu- 
tions, although the Koran so severely commands these forms, 
they pray at home, as they have neither mosques nor clergy. 
Their superstition makes them easy dupes to the magicians 
and pretended physicians, whom they call " batchy," and 
who sometimes really perform astonishing tricks. 

On the whole the Kirghiz are ignorant, proud, lazy, pas- 
sionate ; have no idea of right and wrong, and are brigands 
from their cradles. The women being burdened with all the 
household work, the men have nothing to occupy them at 
home. They therefore lounge about to gossip and fish for 
news. Their curiosity is excessive, and the most insig- 
nificant news spreads like lightning through the steppe. 
They are terrible gluttons, and ever inclined to violate their 
word, and take in every one not mussulman. Their indo- 
lence does not prevent them from looking sharply after their 
interest; and where they discover the least degree of weak- 
ness, they do not shrink from the most impudent exactions. 



200 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



They know neither consideration nor pity, and are not even 
courageous. Having no idea of order, obedience, or disci- 
pline, they show no unity in action. They attack in small 
troops, and with the vivacity of falcons. Their first shock 
is sharp and violent, but of little tenacity, and they fly in 
the wildest disorder. They only fight for the sake of plunder, 
and when they can depend on the swiftness of their horses. 
Their hospitality is only for the Mussulmen, and then only 
because commanded by the Koran. The nobles are very 
proud of their descent, and of Russian titles. 

The women are generally of kind dispositions, and worth 
a great deal more than the men. They are tender to the 
children, and compassionate. Funerals are always con- 
ducted with great ceremonies of lamentations and acted 
despair, for which the women sometimes practise for a year 
before the glass. 

Their only good qualities consist in their respect for the 
aged, and feelings of gratitude. 

THE KIRGHIZ, PROPERLY SO CALLED. 

The name " Kirghiz," or " Kerghez," belongs to this 
people alone, and has nothing to do with the Kirghiz- 
Kaissaks — an altogether different nation, and their deadly 
enemies. For the sake of distinction from the others, they 
are called, " Wild, or Black Kirghiz ; " by the Chinese, 
"Bourouts;" and by the Russians, " Dikokamenniye " 
(or Kirghiz from the Wild Rocks). 

They know no boundaries, and roam about the territory 
of the Issy-Koul ; in the east as far as the line of Kouldja 
and Akssou ; in the south they sometimes enter the little 
states of Badakhshan and Karatighen ; in the west as far as 
Khokand and Tashkent ; and in the north often show them- 
selves on the heights of Kounghi Ala-Tan. The ancient 
Chinese described this people as stout, tall men, with grey 
or blue eyes, and red hair, which seems to point to a 
Finnish origin, the type of which has succumbed to their 



THE YAKOUTES. 



201 



long sojourn amongst the descendants of Tchingghis-Khan. 
Driven from their Siberian home by the Russians, thrown 
back again by the Dzoungar-CEloet, they, under the pro- 
tection of the Kamassints, went south-east and settled 
amongst the Bourouts. 

The Black Horde, partly subjected to Russia (100,000) is 
divided into three tribes — the Bogou, Sara-Baghysh, and 
Sulty — who are under the authority of the " Bis " (chiefs), 
and again subdivided into many small tribes governed by 
chiefs elected by majority of votes. 

The chiefs of the Oormans, Djantai and Djan-Karatch 
(who in 1847 desired to become Russian subjects) stated the 
number of these Kirghiz to be 40,000 yourtes, or 200,000 
souls. Manap-Bourambai, who reigns over the Bogou, has 
under his orders 10,000 yourtes, and upwards of 100,000 
horses. This tribe has always been harassed and cruelly 
oppressed by the Sara-Baghysh, its neighbours, and has 
probably for that reason placed itself under Russian pro- 
tection. These Kirghiz are great breeders of cattle, but 
also agriculturists. Their cattle are very fine. Civilization 
and practical morality encounter formidable obstacles in the 
character of this people, who consider pillage of caravans, 
cattle lifting, and the most barbarous cruelties, to be heroic 
and chivalrous exploits. Their brigandage has rather in- 
creased since 1843 instead of declined. Nevertheless the 
Russian government keeps on amiable terms with the Black 
Horde, in order to insure as much as possible the safety 
of the caravans on the road to Koulclja, Tchougoutchak, 
Tashkent, Khokand, and Kashgarie. 

THE YAKOUTES (200,000). 

Although now separated from their brethren in race, the 
Turco-Tartars, they belong to the same family. A nomadic 
and meditative people, they have always distinguished them- 
selves from their neighbours by fine qualities of character, 
and by their warlike spirit. They inhabit the district of 
Yakoutsk in Eastern Siberia, and the lands irrigated by the 



202 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Lena and its affluents. A pastoral people, they occupy 
prairies and valleys, while their neighbours, the Toungouse, 
who are exclusively hunters, roam about the hilly and woody 
part of the country. 

The Yakoutes call themselves 6t Sakha " (or plural " Sak- 
halar"); but the first Russians gave the Toungouse the 
n,ame of " Yako," by which the latter designated the Yakouts, 
and turned it afterwards into " Yakouta," &c. They are 
divided into several tribes, which owe their origin to the sons 
of the fabulous " Eliei," father of all the race. Before the 
arrival of the Russians, they were ruled by five princes, who 
lived in constant warfare with each other, and probably 
caused their separating into five tribes, who never have any 
intercourse with each other. These tribes are governed by 
Princelets (Knjazeks), but crimes, such as theft and murder, 
are judged and punished according to the Russian laws. The 
court life of these Knjazeks is rather amusing by the airs 
they give themselves, and the absurd ceremonial on which 
they insist. They are always accompanied by runners, who 
must hold their horses, aid them in mounting and dis- 
mounting, execute their behests, and amuse them by the 
way with their gossip. 

The Yakoutes are mostly of middle size, robust, broad 
shouldered, and of Kalmuk physiognomy, owing to their 
intercourse with the Mongols. They have black, bright, but 
small eyes, black bristly hair, bony heads, thick and short 
necks, oval faces, though disfigured by strongly projecting 
cheek-bones, big and flat noses, and their complexion is very 
dark. Their teeth are white and regular, their j lips thick, 
but Nature has given them no beard whatever. The men 
wear their hair very short (except at the back of the head) ; 
the women, on the contrary, have very long hair, which they 
twist into plaits. Being almost always on horseback, their 
legs are bandy, and their gait is therefore very ungraceful. 
The Yakoute's face expresses his meditative habit and calm- 
ness of soul, but is capable of reflecting the most opposite 
emotions in a highly conspicuous manner. The Yakoutes 



THE YAKOUTES. 203 

of Touroukkansk, living on the territory between the Yenisse'i 
and the Khatanga, have curly hair and purely Tartar physiog- 
nomies. The women are in every respect more beautiful 
than the men. 

The Yakoutes of the territory of the Ostrog of Ouda, 
especially the men, have, like the Bouriats, flat and horribly 
ugly faces. 

The climate of their country is extremely severe. The 
summer brings them myriads of mosquitoes, and the winter 
its icy blasts and usual accompaniments. Of the two, how- 
ever, the latter season is after all the best for travelling. 
The Yakoutes are fishers and hunters, but since 1853 they 
have paid considerable attention to agriculture. They live 
to a great age, and old men, of more than one hundred 
summers, are no rarity with them. They live in portable or 
stationary yourtes according to the season. The poorer 
families make their windows of ice, cut into thin frames, 
and fastened with snow. They carve very neatly in wood, 
and are good smiths. Their domestic animals consist prin- 
cipally of horses and horned cattle, as they keep few reindeer, 
goats, or sheep. With their horses they make a good living 
by the transport of merchandise. The Yakoutes of Okhotsk 
make use of dogs only, and horses are bought by them only 
for food. They are abominable gluttons, and to see an 
nnimal killed, boiled, or roasted, is for them the most plea- 
surable sight in the world. The rich Yakoute begrudges the 
killing of a healthy beast, and feels no disgust whatever of 
meat supplied by an animal that had been sick or had died 
of some disease. There is a story of a Yakoute who, at a 
wedding, once drank 40 lbs. of melted butter, and three 
others swallowed without winking, so to say, 16 bottles 
of spirits, while they devoured a whole male one-year-old 
reindeer, and bolted many a pound of melted butter besides. 
They are very dirty in their household arrangements, on the 
pretext that dirt keeps warm ; but their houses are palaces 
compared with the " tchoums " of the Samoyedes. They 
are nearly all baptized, but their notions of Christianity are 



204 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



of a very imperfect kind, and the most absurd superstition is 
rife amongst them. 

Although of a lazy temperament, the Yakoute has good 
business qualities. He is cunning, enterprising, and, in his 
trading transactions, insinuating and dissimulating. He 
looks upon a person, who lets the opportunity for cheating 
another escape him, as upon a fool. Theft with him is a 
fault, but no sin ; and he steals, not because he wants, but 
simply to show his address. They have no idea of hospitality, 
and a Yakoute, who has entertained another, expects the 
latter to treat him in return, and that pretty quickly, or he 
will bring an action against him ; for he considers his guest 
to have become his debtor and bound to repay him. Their 
memory is of an astonishing power, and they sometimes, with 
most scrupulous accuracy, will tell each other of things that 
happened as long as twenty years before. Their poor are 
despised, because they look upon them as abandoned by God. 
The rich are proud, unapproachable, and unjust. If the 
women are diligent housekeepers, they are so more from 
habit than from a sense of duty, for their husbands live in 
great fear of their tongues, and never dare do anything with- 
out their consent. Their imagination is little developed. 
Song and dancing are unknown to them. On the other hand, 
they are very curious, and delight in listening to narration. 
Their language springs from the great Turco-Tartar source ; 
it contains, however, many Mongol words. It has never been 
written. 

The best of the Yakoute tribes is the one inhabiting the 
country near Neezhnei-Zatoundrinsk. They are of an 
obliging disposition, and exceedingly hospitable. They are 
very fond of dancing, but the way in which they do it is 
curious. Forming a circle, they move slowly from one foot 
to the other, singing : " Kheira, khe'ira, khetchou, khetchou, 
khonga'i, ourai, ourai, aggai, aggai !" 



CHAPTER XX. 



THE MONGOL RACE. 

The ancient division of the Mongolian people, which 
existed already before and after Tchinggis-Khan, is still 
found amongst the Russian Mongols. The genuine Mongols 
of Transbaikalia, and their neighbours, the Bouriats, belong 
to the Eastern Mongols ; the Kalruuks of the Altai, of the 
Government of Tomsk, and their brethren in race the Kal- 
muks of the Yolga, form part of the Western Mongol tribe, 
or rather of the descendants of the Political League of the 
Oirates. 

The cradle of all the Mongol tribes is the tableland of 
Central Asia. To this day they lead a nomadic life. They 
profess principally Buddhism or Lama'ism, a religion supe- 
rior to the Shamanism, which had been their primitive reli- 
gion, but inferior to Islamism, which the Turkish tribes had 
adopted. 

Ever since the discovery of Central Asia by the Chinese 
(about 200 years before Christ), all the tribes the latter 
found there, which probably were those subsequently called 
Mongols, were simultaneously united under the sceptre of 
the dynasty of the Khounns (according to Chinese pronun- 
ciation : Khiounn-nou, Hiong-nu). The Mongol nation re- 
ceived always its name from the reigning dynasty. On the 
fall of a reigning house the people did not lose its political 
existence— it only changed the name. 

A few years before the birth of Christ the house of the 
Khounns was for some time ruled by the Chinese, and since 



206 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



the year 14 it was called " Gounnou" (i. e. very humble slave, 
while " Khiounn-nou,'' signifies "pernicious slave"). The 
Mongols, continually at war with the Chinese and Turks of 
Turkestan, divided into hordes and were almost constantly 
moving about, although as yet strictly within their own 
territory, or Mongolia. 

It was owing to Tchinggis-Khan, that the dynasty of the 
Tatans (chinese " Youan ") acquired its power, and could 
maintain itself in Eastern Mongolia, until upset by the 
Chinese. 

On the banks of the Amoor lived, long before Christ, a 
people named u Soushen," and in the Mandshoury itself, 
the people " Ilou." At the beginning of our era the last 
nation subjected the former, adopted the name Oughi, and 
divided into different tribes. In the fifth century one of 
these tribes living on the banks of the Amoor, became 
powerful, but was itself, 200 years after, split up into sixteen 
hordes, known by the name of Mo-ho (Mokh). It is pro- 
bable that at the beginning of the ninth century one of 
these Mokh tribes emigrated in the direction of Ordoss 
(South-eastern Mongolia), took then the name of Tatan, 
and insensibly increasing, spread itself into the Khalka 
(west of Argoun) : in the eleventh century it transmitted its 
name to its adopted country. The Tatans were divided into 
several aimaks, of which the most powerful were the Mongols, 
the Taitshoutes (Taigoutes), the Kherchs, and the Tartars. 
The Mongols alone, towards the middle of the twelfth century, 
carried on a successful war against China. This proves that 
the name of Mo-ho (Mokh) has nothing whatever to do with 
the appellation Mongol. The history of the Chinese dynasty 
of the Tangs (618 — 906) already mentions a people Mong- 
ou, who lived to the north-west, at a great distance from 
the Mo-hos ; and at the time of the Li-ao dynasty, a tribe 
called Mong-kou-li nomadized about those countries, and 
very probably was the Mongolian tribe. The Chinese his- 
tory throughout makes a decided distinction between the 
Mokhs and the people, whose name began with Mong 



THE MONGOL EACE. 



207 



(Mongols). These Mong-kou-lis, who then still peaceably 
traded with Northern China, all at once rose up conquerors 
and founders of a universal empire at the time of the Kin- 
dynasty (1115—1234). Towards the end of the twelfth 
century the Mongol sovereign Temoudjin became the most 
mighty of all the Tatan Princes, and after some victories 
accompanied by horrible cruelties he was elected Emperor, 
under the name of Tchingghis-Khan, in consequence of a 
congress of princes assembled on the Upper Onon in the 
year 1206. In this way the names of Mongols and Tartars 
became familiar to all Europe, and were at a later period 
applied even to the Turkish tribes, who appeared on the 
scene of Timour's (Tamerlan) exploits. (Tatar is the plural 
form of Tatan, which however is rarely used in the Mongol 
language, but familiar to the Mandshu dialect, which trans- 
forms the termination of the singular " n " into an " r" (ri) 
in the plural. The Mongols of our day know no more the 
word " Tatan," but always say Tatar.) 

Tchingghis-Khan had founded an Empire such as no 
monarch ever possessed ; but, after his death, the same was 
first divided amongst his sons, and intestine disturbances and 
constant wars with their neighbours gradually reduced it to 
its present dimensions. In 1638, considerable fractions of 
the Mongol people had detached themselves from the general 
mass of the people and their national interests, in conse- 
quence of which circumstance the Eastern Mongols came 
under the domination of the Mandshus, and lay in the last 
throes of their political independence. In the Altai*, the 
"Western Mongols maintained themselves for more than one 
hundred years, but finally succumbed in their turn like their 
eastern countrymen. At the same time, the Russians had 
already subjected the wild tribes of the Bouriats, and enter- 
tained pacific relations with the Mongols of the Khalka. 
Advancing down the Amoor, they came into close contact 
with the Mandshus, but neither part wishing to measure 
arms with the other, they, at the peace of Nertchinsk in 
1689, agreed as to the natural frontier of the Amoor, and 



208 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



tills convention was not altered until the year 1858. In 
virtue of that peace, the Bouriats remained under Eussian 
domination, which also absorbed a small number of the 
Northern Mongols on the Onon, the original home of 
Tchingghis-Khan. 

The spoken language of the Mongols has perfected itself 
before their literature, and independent of every foreign 
influence. After Modo-Khan (200 years before Christ) had 
united all the Mongol tribes under the name of Hioung-nou 
(later Mongol), a new political organization became indis- 
pensable. Feeling the want of written characters, he began 
by using those of the Chinese. In consequence of this, 
many Chinese entered the Mongol service, which promised 
them great advantages. This state of things existed amongst 
the Mongols for more than 1000 years, and only under the 
first sovereign of the house Kitan (in 920), they at last 
invented a national hand- writing. TchiDgghis-Khan, as 
well as his successors, availed themselves of the Ouigour and 
also of the Chinese writing. The former is in use to this 
day, but in two forms, viz., in the alphabetic characters of 
the Eastern Mongols and those of the Kalmuks. All Mongol 
tribes speak the same language. It is an idiom springing 
from the same source as the Turkish or Tartar language. 

EASTERN MONGOLS. 

The Bouriats (230,000). — One of the tribes, who, in ages 
long gone by, emigrated westward, and spreading subse- 
quently in a northern and north-western direction, drove 
back the Toungouse, and penetrated into the country about 
the Baikal, of which they form the principal population. 
Although once close neighbours of the Kalmuks of the Altai, 
they had been for a long time separated from the Kalmuk 
nation, and are for that reason considered Eastern Mongols. 

They are divided into different sets, which bear the name 
of the locality where their settlements are situated ; as for 
instance (west of Baikal), the Koudin Bouriats, the Verk- 



THE BOUMATS. 



209 



holinsk, Olkkon, Idin, Balajansk, Alarsk, and Tunkin ; and 
(in the east, in Transbaikalia) the Khorin, Selenghin, 
Kudarin, and Bargouzin-Bouriats. 

All Bouriats have a great resemblance to the Kalmuks— 
their projecting cheek-bones, which in their youth are not 
so very conspicuous, owing to their full habit and round forms 
— are undeniable witnesses of the above-named element. The 
Bouriat is strong and of middle size. His hair, of which he has 
but a tuft on the top of the head, is black and soft ; his eyes 
are black and narrow, the brows thin and raised, the ears big 
and standing off, the teeth even and of striking whiteness, 
the nose big and flat, the forehead low and flat, his com- 
plexion is dark, but clear and glossy, and the skull of a 
conical shape. His short legs, which in sitting he crosses 
Oriental fashion, are generally bandy. This circumstance 
and the disproportionate development of the upper frame, 
renders his walk vacillating and awkward. Compared to 
the Eussians, the Bouriats are not very muscular. They 
seldom live to an advanced age, owing to their excessive 
use of tobacco and their objecting to any medicine excepting 
that which has been prescribed by their lamas, shamans, or 
magicians. 

The costume of the Transbaikalian Bouriats is very rich 
and splendid, particularly that of the young girls of the lake 
Baikal, which is very singular, but suits them extremely 
well. On week days they wear only goat or sheep skins ; 
but on holidays they are dressed in kaftans of the finest and 
blackest of sables and other costly furs, such as are found 
nowhere else. The ladies wear much jewellery, consisting of 
all kinds of precious stones, pearls, and gold and silver 
ornaments, with which they load arms, neck, ears, fingers, 
hair, and dresses. Men and women wear a pointed red silk 
cap trimmed with sable. The large and flashing knife and 
a Chinese pipe mounted with brass, constitute the height of 
elegance. 

The Bouriat is phlegmatic (though he can occasionally 
flash out with great fire), and does not work, unless driven 



210 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



to it "by hunger. The women are generally far more active 
Chan the master of the house. The men are careless, lazy, 
taciturn, and in commercial transactions not over scrupulous, 
although theft is rare amongst them. Hospitality is for 
them a sacred duty. They are neither so licentious, nor so 
rude and uncultivated as the Yakoutes. They have a decided 
predilection for tobacco and spirituous liquors, but soon get 
intoxicated. Their food consists often in meats of diseased 
beasts, and they make a sort of hash, which they eat entirely 
without salt, though composed of spoilt meat. They also 
consume much seal's fat, which they swallow raw' and with- 
out either bread or salt. Their tea is mixed with fat and 
salt, and compressed in the form of bricks. Of this, they 
throw a few pieces into a saucepan and boil it, and this 
beverage is considered nourishing and wholesome. Although 
nomads, they are bad shepherds, and take little care of 
their flocks ; excellent riders and marksmen, they yet hunt 
very rarely. The household utensils and the material for 
their clothes are made by themselves, and they are generally 
also clever at all work in iron. They are fond of music and 
song, although it is rather of a flabby kind and in accordance 
with their listless ways. The women are considered impure, 
and their fate is often deplorable. 

Their language is one of the four known dialects of the 
Mongol language, and not essentially distinguished from 
either the northern or southern Mongol, or from the Kalmuk 
dialects. On the other side of the Baikal this language 
contains a certain number of Thibetian and Hindoo words. 
The Russian language serves for business transactions. The 
Khorine Bouriats, as the most civilized of their tribes, 
generally are able to read and write. 

The religion of the Bouriats, up to the middle of last 
century, had almost entirely consisted of Shamanism ; but 
Christianity, although only recently introduced among that 
people, is making rapid strides. Between 1840 and 1844 
only 1,300 Bouriats of both sexes had received baptism ; in 
1851, 7,700 persons had been added to that number, which, 



THE KALMUKS. 



211 



by this time, must be very considerable. It is particularly 
the poor women who press forward to the baptismal font. 
Amongst the baptized are many highly honourable, worthy 
persons. Some of their customs remind one of Shamanism; 
as, for instance, the habit of sacrificing to the gods on 
important occasions, such as grievous maladies, voyages, &c. 
Many localities of the Baikalian territory, particularly the 
island of Olkhon, are reputed sacred. 

MONGOLS OF THE WEST, OK KALMUKS. 

The ancient country of the Western Mongols is Dzoun- 
garia, and to this day inhabited by the Kalmuks. Its 
territories extend from the Altai Mountains and the Lake 
Oubsa, towards the West, as far as the Great Hord of 
Kirghiz-Kaissaks, and from the frontier of Russia south- 
wardly as far as the Hymalaja (Tengre-Vola). 

The Mongols of the West, or Kalmuks, are known by 
different appellations — i.e., (Eloet-Dzoungars on account of 
their nationality, and Oirates in consequence of their political 
league. The different tribes and sub-divisions are also 
denominated by particular names. 

THE ALTAIC OR BLACK KALMUKS. 

They inhabit, in the government of Tomsk, the country 
north and south of the Altai' Mountains as far as the 
Chinese frontier. 

Separated from their other brethren in race, and still in 
every respect faithful to the ancient customs of the Kal- 
muk-Dzoungars, they can hardly be said to have made the 
first step towards civilization, although they begin to use 
firearms. Their language is a mixture of Mongol and 
Tartar, although the Dvojedantsy (a tribe tributary to both 
Russia and China) possess a particular idiom, and speak 
besides the Mongol language. They are thick-set and broad- 
shouldered, their legs bandy, owing to their constant life on 
horseback, and their features are Mongol. 

p 2 



212 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



The lot of the women is very hard. They are the slaves 
of their husbands and articles of property bought with money 
or cattle. The men are exceedingly indolent, and only 
occupy themselves with hunting. Their food and beverages 
resemble those of most Mongols — i.e., the " kotcho " (or 
boiled barley groats), horse-meat, compressed tea, koumyss, 
airan, &c. Some of them are very rich, and possess upwards 
of 40 taboons of horses and 3,000 sheep. A taboon consists of 
30 mares and one horse. The camels are scarce amongst them. 

The Kalmuks are generous, hospitable, good-naturedly 
impulsive, and without calculation or after-thought ; never 
troubling themselves about the future, they will give away 
their last sheep. The poor live by the side of the rich, and 
coolly help themselves to the milk and other victuals they 
require. As long as their liberty is not encroached on, they 
are pleasant and obliging, but they would never consent to 
the imposition of mercenary services. 

Their music is primitive, the instruments consisting of a 
reed flute and a kind of guitar of horse-skin with strings of 
horse-hair twisted into cords. Their song is dull, mono- 
tonous, and treats but of things which happen to strike the 
eye at the moment. Riding and shooting (in which arts 
they are exceedingly proficient) are their favourite pastime. 
They are hunters and fishers, but only when obliged ; other- 
wise they remain at home in a state of perfect apathy. In 
swearing an oath the Kalmuk kisses the barrel of his gun, 
and their signature consists in the mark by which each man 
distinguishes his cattle. 

The religion of the Kalmuks is Shamanism ; with them 
the Shamans are magicians, prophets, and physicians. Since 
the year 1830, great efforts have been made to convert the 
Kalmuks of the Altai, and this missionary work has also 
been crowned with success. 

THE KALMUKS OF THE VOLGA, 

or rather Torgotes (Tourgoutes), are nomadic tribes, on the 



THE KALMUKS. 



213 



right bank of the Volga, in the government of Astrakhan, 
Stavropol, and in the country of the Cossacks of the Don. 
They came in the year 1636 from the westernmost bounda- 
ries of the Chinese Empire, and obtained extensive pasture 
lands on both banks of the Volga. Every village of those 
parts is surrounded by some Kibitkas inhabited by j)Oor 
Asiatics (Kalmuks), who come from the steppe in order to 
earn a penny by their work. The men accordingly engage 
themselves as farm-labourers, shepherds, or fishers ; the 
women as sempstresses. One meets amongst the Kalmuks 
with great simplicity of heart and candour, and if they were 
not constantly moving about, they would have been Christians 
long ago. They are honest and peaceable, and distinguished 
by their good morals and a certain spirit of fraternity ; but 
their kibitkas and the preparation of their food evince an 
entire absence of any idea of cleanliness. 

The Kalmuks of Astrakhan twelve years since possessed 
as many as 100,000 horses, 150,000 heads of horned cattle, 
790,000 sheep, and 23,000 camels and goats. 

Both sexes passionately love tobacco, which they smoke 
from short pipes, and they are also much addicted to the 
use of spirits. All of them, excepting the clergy, eat horse- 
meat. 

The population of Kalmuks on the Volga amounts to 
130,000 souls. 

The language of the Kalmuks is Mongol, somewhat 
modified. For ages separated from their Mongol brethren 
of the East this language has been gradually changed by 
the adoption of many Tartar words. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



TOUNGOUSE PEOPLES. 

The nationalities known by that name are divided into 
the following tribes, which are distinguished from each other 
by their occupations and habits : — 

1. The nomadic Toungouse and the Toungouse of the 
settlements (fishers), which are subdivided as follows : Toun- 
gouse of the government of Yenisseisk, who have preserved 
the national type and represent in the most perfect degree 
that of the nomadic or forest Toungouse. 

Toungouse of the environs of the lake Baikal, in the 
government of Irkoutsk, strongly resembling the last. 

Toungouse of the province of Yakoutsk, who, being princi- 
pally nomadic, have adopted in many respects the habits of 
the Yakouts, while the smaller moiety of them, who have 
settled, have more approached the Russians. 

Toungouse of the sea of Okhotsk, or Lamouts, who are 
partly nomads (fishers), partly settlers (farmers). 

Toungouse of Nertchinsk, who live principally by the 
breeding of cattle. 

Toungouse of the Upper Amoor (nomads and fishers). 

Toungouse of the Lower Amoor (fishers), Namki (?). 

Toungouse of the Northern and Southern Lower Amoor 
(mixed with Mandshous and Chinese). 

2. Daours, or Daourians, on the Middle Amoor, who 
occupy themselves with cattle breeding and agriculture. 

These Daours deviate considerably from the general Toun- 
gouse type. 



THE TOUNGOUSE. 



215 



The Toungouse inhabit the greater part of the vast terri- 
tory of Eastern Siberia. In the north they are close upon 
the Glacial Sea ; in the south they fish in the Amoor and 
Baikal ; in the east they have for neighbours the Tchouktckis ; 
the Koriaks and the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Yenisse'i and 
Ket rivers, form their natural western boundaries. 

Their territory is in many parts hilly and swampy, in 
others covered with almost impenetrable forests, and in 
every direction traversed by rivers and other watercourses. 
The climate is extremely severe, and the population propor- 
tionately small, the Toungouse numbering altogether only 
about 70,000 souls. 

The name Toungouse probably is derived from the Chinese 
Toung-hou (barbarians of the north-east), for " Toung " 
means " east," and " hous " barbarians of the north. The 
Toungouse themselves have adopted divers appellations, by 
which they distinguish the different tribes, such as Evenki, 
Ovenki, Yevoisny, Kamnegany, &c. The tribes of the east 
of the Okhotsk Sea are called Lamouts ; but the pastoral 
Toungouse of the Southern territory and of the Amoor are 
generally distinguished by the name of Orotchones ; for they 
call themselves Orotcha, which signifies shepherds of rein- 
deer (" oron "= reindeer). The Toungouse tribes of the 
Amoor (farmers and graziers) are called Daours by the 
Bouriats. 

The Toungouse became Russian subjects in the middle of 
the seventeenth century. 

The Toungouse live mostly in the woods, and are con- 
sidered a nation of hunters par excellence. Their tribes 
of pure descent belong to the most interesting primitive 
peoples known. The Toungouse is born, lives and dies in 
the woods ; if single, he roams day and night through the 
forest with his gun or bow, and endures the greatest hard- 
ships, often including fasts of several clays' duration, with 
perfect equanimity. If married, he is accompanied by 
his whole family and a few reindeer to carry his scanty 
traps. He thinks then only of hunting, and such of the 



216 



THE LAXD OF THE CZAE. 



members of the family as are able, assist him, as best they 
can. 

The physiognomy of the Toungouse generally expresses 
gentleness and a good heart ; his eyes are the reflection of a 
pure and simple soul incapable of deceit and cunning. He 
is peaceable and sincere, and extremely hospitable. He 
loves his liberty and independence above everything else, and 
only the most urgent necessitv can drive him into the volun- 
tary performance of any kind of work. 

The Christian religion has made little progress amongst 
the Toungouse, who are as yet more faithful to Sha- 
manism than any other people of Siberia. Their priests, 
who are much respected by them, give themselves a hideous 
and ferocious appearance, whenever they are called upon 
to evoke the spirits. Shamanism, still at this day in force 
throughout the whole of Xorth Asia and the Xorth-west of 
America, is a degenerated form of the primitive religion of 
Central Asia. 

This primitive religion taught the adoration of the omni- 
potence and the supreme wisdom of God, as well as the glori- 
fication of the celebrated men which were elevated by the 
apotheosis to the rank of divinities of second order. Im- 
postors, however, for their own vile purposes, soon introduced 
uesv doctrines and ceremonials, which completely altered the 
original purity of the religion. Exorcists of both sexes 
appeared, who, under violent beating of cymbals and tam- 
bourines, and with the help of contortions, convulsive jump- 
ing, piercing shrieks, and often even of self-inflicted wounds, 
worked themselves into a kind of ecstasy, and pretended to 
enjoy, while in that state, the faculty of direct communica- 
tion with the spirits or the gods. 

The Toungouses are generally of middle size, and have 
oval heads, round faces, and a broad and flat forehead : the 
eyes are black, bright, narrow, and a little sunk ; the brow 
arched, the nose flat (its upper part on the same line with 
the eyes) ; the mouth is large, and the lips generally very 
thick ; the cheek-bones are prominent, and the chin is 



THE TOUNGOUSE. 



217 



square ; the chest well developed, and the back vigorous. 
They never either cut or comb their thick hair, which they 
however keep together by a knot at the back of. the head. 
They have little beard. Some of them extract the hair of 
the beard, and even to this day tattoo their face and chin. 

The women are much like the men, but their physiognomy 
is more expressive. 

The Christian Toungouse baptize their children when they 
go to pay the "yassak" (tax of skins). They are very 
affectionate parents, and give their children only such names 
as are expressive of love and tenderness. The young people 
marry at the age of fifteen or sixteen; they choose their 
wives, and fix the "kalyro." (thirty roubles = 41. 10s.) 
themselves. Sometimes in lieu of the kalym the young 
betrothed offers to the father, brother, or uncle of the bride, 
his own mother, sister, or niece in exchange. 

The Toungouse songs are improvised on the spur of the 
moment, but hardly ever of an edifying description. In 
dancing, men and women, embracing each other, whirl about 
in the maddest manner, crying all the time, " Yokher eh — 
yokher eh— yokher he ! tchokh, tchokh, tchokh ! yokher 
he ! " &c. They love dancing exceedingly, but have no 
musical instruments whatever. 

The Christian Toungouse sew their dead into a reindeer 
skin, and bury them ; but the Pagans, although they also 
perform the first operation, do not inter the bodies, but 
suspend them from trees. 

The Eussian Government has done much for this people. 
It has established offices, where they may buy flour, powder, 
lead, arms, &c, on credit. The Toungouse are therefore 
strongly attached to the Government, which, in case of an 
epidemic disease amongst them, provide medical assistance 
of the most efficient kind. They are fond of spirits, and this 
renders them easy dupes for the Russian merchants, who, 
after having plied them well with liquor, generally manage 
to buy the most costly furs at vile prices. 

The Toungouse is active, indefatigable, and bold in the 



218 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



hour of danger. In following the track of an animal he 
performs journeys which would kill a horse or even a dog. 
Every inch of ground is known to him, and his organ of 
sight is most extraordinarily developed. He never misses 
his aim, be his arm the rifle or the bow. The latter he 
employs in fishing, and his arrows pierce his prey at con- 
siderable depths. Nothing pleases him so much as the 
encounter with the bear, whom he kills with his sharp hunt- 
ing knife attached to a stick of five feet in length. 

One of the tribes, the Lamoutes, who inhabit the territory 
of the Sea of Okhotsk, distinguish themselves from the 
other Toungouse only by their dialect. They are all bap- 
tized, very good Christians ; and their upright loyalty is 
such, that the tribunals consider their word equivalent to an 
oath — in fact incontrovertible. This excellent people unfor- 
tunately share with the other tribes the passion for tea, 
tobacco, and spirituous liquors, which exercise a most perni- 
cious influence on their health and general well-being, while 
they undermine their morals and intellectual faculties. 

The name Lamoute is derived from " lamou " (the sea) ; 
some ethnographers consider the name a namki" more 
correct, as "nam" in the dialect of those parts is the 
proper appellation for sea, while "amou" and "omo" 
signify "lake," and " mou," or "mouke," means water in 
general. 

The most civilized are the Nertchinsk-Toungouse, who 
already at the end of the seventeenth century became Chris- 
tian — i.e., at the period of the military expeditions under- 
taken by the Cossacks of Siberia against the Chinese. The 
Toungouse Prince Gantimoor (Khan Timoor), filled with 
admiration for the bravery of the Cossacks, resolved to settle 
near them, and he was the first who soon after demanded to 
be baptized. 

The Orotchones are the most inferior tribe of the Toun- 
gouse. They are small of stature and badly shaped, have 
prominent cheek-bones, flat faces, big noses and mouths, 
thin lips, small and oblique eyes, spare eyebrows, black and 



THE YOUKAGHIRS. 



219 



straight hair, and little beard. Owing to their roving life, 
they are little civilized; and the Shamans are still all- 
powerful with them. They marry very young, while they 
are still children, and principally in order to get the domestic 
services of the woman or little girl, who occupies that posi- 
tion in her husband's house, for life. 

The Toungouse tribe of the Maniagres are distinguished 
from the others by their occupation, which is the breeding 
of horses and not of reindeer. They are generally strongly 
built and above the middle height. 

The Daours are farmers and shepherds and live on the left 
bank of the Amoor between the mouths of the Khoumar and 
of the Oussouri. Their religion is Shamanism mixed up 
with doctrines of Confucius and Lamaic dogmata and cere- 
monies. Their idols represent the forms of frogs, toads, 
turtles, &c, but never that of a human being; they are 
rudely made, and elevated on high poles. 

THE PEOPLES OF EASTERN SIBERIA. 

The Youkaghirs (800). — They inhabit the shores of the 
Glacial Sea, on the Yana, Indighirka, Alazeya, Kolyma, and 
the Upper Anadyr, and are the remnants of divers tribes 
who lived between the Toungouses, Tartars, and Koriako- 
Tchouktchis. They may be said to form the link between 
the latter and the Eskimos. Once a numerous tribe, they 
have been reduced to the present small number by their 
incessant wars and the small-pox. The Yenissei-Cossacks 
came upon them first in 1639, and found them a far more 
hostile people than the Yakouts. They had no idea of civili- 
zation, lived by rapine, made use of stone hatchets, prepared 
their food in wooden bowls, and cooked it by means of 
red-hot stones. Their religion consisted in Shamanism of 
the grossest kind. 

The Youkaghirs have black eyes and hair, an elongated, 
pale face, but rather regular and expressive features. In 
customs, way of living, and costume, they resemble their 



220 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



neighbours the Lamoutes. It is difficult to find traces of a 
national language amongst them, and they speak generally 
Toungouse or Russian. They are hospitable, good-natured, 
merry, and modest, but very lazy, uncleanly, and inveterate 
smokers and drinkers. The Youkaghir is exceedingly fond 
of his domestic reindeer, which he would not kill, even to 
save himself and family from starving. The children are 
suckled until they have passed their fifth year, a custom met 
with also in Westphalian Sauerland. 

Although very superstitious, the greater part of the nation 
are baptized. The Youkaghir Christians show much piety, 
benevolence, and love for their neighbours. 

Since 1842, the Youkaghirs venture to sea to hunt the 
seal, and men and women undertake every autumn a cam- 
paign against the field rats, and rob those careful little 
animals of their winter provisions. They visit also the fair 
of Fort Aniouisk, where they sell their furs and pay their 
taxes. It is always the elders who take the money to the 
Ispravnik, or Russian tax-collector. Every year they com- 
plain of unprofitable hunt, of the want of sufficient powder 
and shot, of diseases, &c. The officer politely expresses his 
sympathy, but nevertheless insists on the payment. They 
then beg him to receive the tax (yassak) in money, instead of 
furs, to which he generally consents. 

The Tchouvants are counted amongst the Youkaghirs. 
There are only 200 souls, who are probably of the same 
origin. They are nearly all baptized, but show still strong 
inclination to Shamanite superstition. 

The Koriako-TcJwuTxtchis inhabit the extreme north-eastern 
jDarts of Siberia, the Anadyr forming the natural boundary 
between their country and that of the Tchouktchis. These 
tribes are decidedly distinguished from all other Siberian 
tribes by the formation of their faces, and particularly that 
of the skull, of which the type resembles far more that of 
their southern, but especially of their eastern neighbours, 
the Aleutes, who belong to the Eskimo race in the most 
extensive sense of the word. The skulls of the Tchouktchis 



THE TCHOUKTGHIS. 



221 



and Koriaks are depressed near the temples, and elevated 
behind. Their eyes are not so small, their faces less flat, 
and the forehead higher, than is the case with the Mongols. 
Their hair is black, and there may be seen some agreeable 
faces amongst them. They are supposed to have come from 
America. 

The Tchouktchis, although wild and warlike, are neverthe- 
less an essentially mercantile people, and occupy the north- 
eastern coasts of Siberia, and all the mountainous, swampy, 
moss-clad territory between the Bay of Tchaoun and the 
mouth of the Anadyr. The Cossacks entered their country at 
the beginning of the seventeenth century. Presents of knives, 
glass beads, &c, insured their good- will; and in 1644 the 
Cossacks built a blockhouse, which now has grown to be the 
town of Neezhnei-Kolymsk. The first missionary arrived 
amongst the Tchouktchis in 1704, but baptism did not 
become general before the years 1800-1810. During the 
winter of 1811-12 the Priest Sleptsov, a self-denying, 
zealous preacher of the Gospel, penetrated to the territory 
situated at a distance of 280 to 300 miles east of the 
Neezhnei-Kolymsk, which he found occupied by the 
Tchouktchis, at that time a wild and hostile people. He 
arrived at (what he called) Tchavan, written " Tchaoun " on 
the ancient charts, and which the Tchouktchis call Tchava, 
Tchaouan. Before the Tchouktchis came there the land was 
occupied by a people to whom the Tchouktchis had given the 
appellation of Tchavatcha, which reminds one of the modern 
Tchouvants. In the Tchouktchi language the word Tchaout- 
chou, or Tchavtchou, signifies : shepherds of reindeer. The 
Tchouktchi people are subdivided into three classes — i.e., the 
reindeer breeding Tchouktchis (Tchavtchou), the marine 
Tchouktchis (Ankalehn), who live by the produce of their 
nets and harpoons ; and the merchant Tchouktchis (Kavra- 
remkit), who visit Aniou'iski-Ostrog and another town on the 
Krougovy-Mam, about 120 miles from Neezhnei-Kolymsk, 
there to exchange their furs for Russian goods. Business is 
carried on in the open air and on the ice of the river Anioul, 



222 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



on which they erect their tents. The Russians bring their 
goods to Neezhnei-Kolymsk from great distances, even from 
Yakoutsk, especially Tcherkassk tobacco, hardware, glass, 
linen, ribbons, otter, wolf, and glutton furs, which they 
exchange for the reindeer skins, and beaver, marten, lynx, 
and other furs. The latter, as well as the walrus teeth, come 
almost exclusively from America. 

The settled Tchouktchis (Yevkals, 10,000) inhabit the 
shores of the Glacial Arctic Ocean. One of the tribes, the 
Namolles, live on the banks of the bay of Kolioutchensk 
and of the mouth of the Anadyr. They are descended from 
the Esquimos, and number about 1,000 souls. Their lan- 
guage is a dialect of the Kadiak idiom. Their eyebrows are 
raised, their eyes close together, and their physiognomy 
altogether resembles that of the Mongols ; for their face is 
perfectly flat, and the nose hardly perceptible. The little 
girls are, however, frequently very pleasant-looking, the 
ugliness of the Mongol features being softened by youthful 
roundness and fresh complexion. The old women are 
hideous. Their character is on the whole satisfactory ; but 
their habits are dirty, and they practise Shamanism in its 
coarsest form. 

They never sacrifice reindeer to their idols, but dogs, 
although they possess but a small number of the latter. 
The clogs are put to the sledges only in winter, but are 
indispensable for the chase of the bear. The Tchouktchis are 
far more hunters than fishers, and their arms consist of guns, 
bows, nets, lances, &c. The wolf is zealously hunted and 
killed by them, not for the sake of his fur so much as for 
his simple destruction, because he is considered by them to 
be possessed by a bad spirit, and hostile to their reindeer. 
They catch the wolf sometimes in an extraordinary manner. 
They drive a bar of iron into the ground or ice, after they have 
dipped it into some odoriferous substance ; and the instant 
the tongue of the wolf touches it, it becomes fastened to it 
by the frost and congealed. When the Tchouktchis kill a 
wolf, they cry out : " Wolf, do not be angry with us, 



THE KORIAKS. 



228 



for it is not we, but the Roussaki, who have killed 

you!" 

It is said that on important occasions the Tchouktchis 
will even sacrifice human beings to their gods, but they will 
not confess to this fact, but state, that the few persons they 
have sometimes sacrificed had been tired of life, and begged 
them formally and fervently to offer them up to their deities. 
Their dances aud songs are barbarous, and the gestures with 
which the women accompany the same are even very indecent. 
Their only musical instrument is the tambourine, b.ut they 
are wonderfully clever in imitating any kind of animal and 
birds. 

Many of the reindeer-breeding Tchouktchis are very rich, 
and possess as many as 10,000 and 12,000 reindeer. They 
are very hospitable, and never leave the slightest service 
unrewarded. Notwithstanding their savage and warlike 
spirit, which Christianity has somewhat softened in the 
case of the small number that have received baptism, they 
are just and honest. In the same manner as they are im- 
placable to an enemy, so are they staunch and true to their 
friends. They are only nominal subjects of Russia, and it 
will take a very long time before the Russian Government 
can hope to Christianize and civilize them. The Russians 
have known them for two to three centuries, and the result of 
their endeavours for their conversion has remained very insig- 
nificant to this day. 

The Koriaks are the neighbours of the Tchouktchis, of the 
same race, and resemble them almost on every point. They 
have round, sometimes also oval, faces, and a deep yellow 
complexion (in the case of the women more delicate and of 
lighter colour). Young people have full and high-coloured 
cheeks. The cheek-bones are less prominent, the nose not 
so flat, in some cases even aquiline, but their other features 
resemble those of the Tchouktchis. The Koriaks are well- 
made, and the women have delicate little hands and feet. 
Married women only tattoo their faces, because they hope 
thereby to arrest the ravages of time. 



224 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The Koriak language has very harsh sounds, but its voca- 
bulary being exceedingly limited, it is easy to learn the 
whole by heart. They seldom speak the Tchouktchi tongue ; 
the Russians trading with them must therefore learn the 
Koriak dialect. It must be said that the Koriaks marry 
under formidable difficulties. The young aspirant to the 
altar of Hymen first of all must cany some presents to the 
father of the lovely creature he adores. If they are accepted 
he then enters on a period of servitude with that Koriak 
Laban, and is charged with all the hardest work, such as 
the guarding of the reindeer, fetching of fuel, &c. He 
never speaks to the young lady, who, on her part has also 
to hold her tongue ; but he firmly counts on her tender and 
grateful heart. If the young gentleman pleases the papa, 
which frequently takes the latter six or even ten years to 
find out, he has his hard-earned Rachel sent to him, but in 
the utmost state of filthiness, so as to disgust him, if pos- 
sible, and get his services for nothing. Polygamy is per- 
mitted, but, on the conditions just detailed, not often taken 
advantage of. If the girl is not pleased with the young 
man she may refuse him, and he is then sent back without 
ceremony. On the eve of the wedding the parents of his 
bride with other friends administer a sound thrashing to him 
with canes, in order to initiate him into the troubles and 
cares of married life. Man and wife invariably live most 
happily together, and they show great affection for their 
offspring. They are a good, honest, and just people, and 
hospitable in the extreme. Of a lively temperament, they 
are witty and capable of giving replies of stinging sarcasm, 
but they' are vindictive and their habits filthy beyond all 
description. 

Their dead are burned together with their favourite rein- 
deer. 

Their Shamanism is a mixture of fear and adoration of 
good and bad genii. 



THE KAMTCHADALS AND GHILIAKS. 



225 



THE KAMTCHADALS (2,000). 

The indigenous people of the peninsula of Katntchatka 
may be said to have nearly disappeared in consequence of 
their intermingling with the Russian, Koriak, and Lamoute 
elements that have been attracted to their beautiful pasture 
lands in the western part of their territory. The Cossacks 
were the first Russian settlers in the country about the 
beginning of the seventeenth century. Petropavlovsk was 
the first capital of the province till 1854, when it was super- 
seded by Nikolayevsk at the mouth of the Amoor. 

Desirous of encouraging the agriculture of Kamtchatka, 
the Russian Government has at different periods sent colonists 
from the Lena to that province. Independently of the climate 
and latitude of this easternmost country of Asia, the condi- 
tion of the soil seems directly opposed to the success of 
agricultural pursuits. The country is traversed by a chain 
of volcanic mountains, which render the ground sterile, and 
cause the accumulation of enormous mounts of (in some parts 
of the country) never-melting snow, especially in the eastern 
half of the peninsula ; while the western and more temperate 
part is only fit for the cultivation of potatoes and some other 
vegetables, but not of any kind of cereals. 

The forests of Kamtchatka are very rich in animal life of 
every kind, and in winter the produce in furs is very con- 
siderable. The breeding of dogs is here carried on upon a 
very large scale, while that of cattle and horses is rather 
neglected, although the former prosper here better than at 
Yakoutsk. The Kamtchatka dog is the best, strongest, and 
fastest of all the draught dogs of Siberia, and great prices 
are sometimes paid for a good dog. If the road is good, 
they will run a distance of 45 miles a day with ease. 

THE GHILIAKS 

are so much in contact with the Russian colonies of the 
mouth of the Amoor, that their nationality, as well as their 



226 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



language have almost entirely disappeared. They are quite 
distinct by exterior and language from the Toungouse of the 
Lower Amoor, although their manner of living is precisely 
similar to that of the latter, inasmuch as both peoples are 
great fishers and hunters. Their language has not the 
remotest affinity to that of the Toungouse, and is remarkable 
for the great number of monosyllables it contains. They 
are also taller and stronger than the Toungouse, and their 
eyes are less oblique than those of the latter. The mouth, 
although small and formed by thick lips, is not ugly. The 
nose is short, fat, and turned up ; the eye-brows are very 
thick and boldly arched ; the hair, black and thick, is curly, 
and the beard far stronger than with the Toungouse. 



THE KOUKILES OR AUTOS. 

They are probably of Kamtchadal race, but more closely 
allied to the Grhiliaks, and inhabit the islands of the same 
name, i. e., the northern part of the Island of Sakhalin. 
There are but a few hundred of them extant. 

The Kourile has an elongated and flat face, brown hair 
and beard, but both so thick and long that nearly the whole 
body is covered by them. They are very timid, and much 
given to suicide. Their occupation is fishing and hunting, 
and they repair every year to the islands of Choumshou and 
Ouroup in order to exchange their sea-otter skins against 
Russian or American goods. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



THE POPULATION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 



INDO-EUROPEAN NATIONS. 



f ONIANS. 


m 

1 


' Russians of Great Russia . 
of Siberia 

„ of Little Russia . 

, , of White Russia . 
„ Cossacks 


31,290,000 
2,135,000 

12,015,000 
2,950,000 
1,600,000 




m 


-1 r 

- s .1 Serbians .... 
J -3 | < Bulgarians . . . . 
£1-3 ^ Poles 


1,000 
59,000 
4,640,000 


54,690,000 


Lithuanian ! 
People. i 


Lithuanians . ... 
Lettonians .... 


1,480,000 

nOA AAA 

960,000 


O ARC\ AAA 


People of / 

the ] Yallachians . . . . 
Latin Race. < 


770,000 


770,000 


Iranian i 
Peoples. | 


* Ossetinians . . ... 
Persians ..... 
Kourds .... 
Armenians . . . . 


30,000 
19,000 
11,000 
400,000 


460,000 


Fractions 
op Indo- 
European 
Peoples. 


[■ Germans .... 

Swedes 

Greeks .... 
L Gipsies 


920,000 
200,000 
52,000 
50,000 


1,222,000 




| Jews. 


i Jews 

[ Karaimes . . . . 


2,008,000 
6,000 


2,014,000 


Oatjcasian 
Peoples. 


" Georgians .... 

Lesgni . . . . 

Kistes (Tchechents) 
^Tcherkess . . . . 


530,000 
650,000 
150,000 
500,000 


1,830,000 










63,446,000 



228 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



"UEALO-ALTAIC NATIONS. 







Brought oyer 


63,446,000 


Samoyedes. 




Samoyedes .... 


16,000 


16,000 


Finnish 
Peoples. 




' Livonians . . . . 

Esthonians .... 

Tchouds 

Yotes ..... 

Finns . . ... 

Jjors 

Aeireemoeisets . . . 

Savokotes .... 

Karelians . . . . 

Laps ..... 

Permians . . . . 

Zyrians ; 

Yotiaks . . . . . 

Yoghuls .... 

Ostjaks . . . . . 

Tcheremiss .... 
v Mordvas . . . . 


2,000 
700,000 
55,000 
o,uuu 
600,000 
18,000 
30,000 
45,000 
1,016,000 
4,000 
60,000 
90,000 
235,000 
7,000 
23,000 
210,000 
700,000 


3,800,000 


Tartar 
Peoples. 




' Tchouvashes 
Bashkirs . ... 
Tartars .... 
Boukharees . . . . 
Turkomans .... 
Kirghiz-Kaissaks . . . 
Kirghiz (genuine) 
Yakouts 


670,000 
1,000,000 
2,191,000 
9,000 
70,000 
1,450,000 
110,000 
200,000 


5,700,000 


Mongols. 


f Mongolians .... 

~l Bouriats 

L Kalmuks .... 


6,000 
224,000 


376,000 


ToTTTNTfrOTTSE 

Peoples. 


j Toungouse . . . . 
\ Ostjaks of the Yenissei 


70,000 
1,000 


71,000 


Peoples oe 
Oriental 
Siberia. 


f Youkaghirs . . . . 
| Koriako-Tchoutchis . 

Kamtchadals . . . . 

Ghiliaks .... 
LA'mos . . . . . 


1,000 
24,000 

2,000 
10,000 

1,000 


38,000 








3S,000 


73,447,000 



POPULATION OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 2£9 

Total Population according to Races. 
j i 

Indo-European Race ; 61,616,000 

Caucasian ,, j 1,830,000 

Uralo- Altaic 9,963,000 

Oriental Siberian „ ! 38,000 



Total 



73,447,000 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

A GLIMPSE AT THE HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE FROM 
THE FOUNDATION OF THE SAME BY RURIK TO THE REIGN 
OF ALEXANDER 71. 

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

The Russian Monarchy of our days, into the colossal propor- 
tions of which the preceding chapters have given the reader 
some insight — if now it extends over 500,000 square miles — 
in the year 1462, it possessed but 18,500. 

The conquest of Siberia, in 1584 ; at once raised that figure 
to 125,000, which, by the time of the death of Peter the 
Great, had increased to a total of 264,000 miles. 

The title of the sovereigns of Russia for a long time, was 
Grand Prince, Grand Duke, or Chief and Father of the 
divers vassal princes. It was elevated to that of Czar, 
Povelitjel, Ssamoderyeds in 1547; and in 1721, in the 
person of Peter the Great, to that of Emperor. 

The idea of the so-called " Imperial Despotism," as 
exercised by the Russian monarchs, has been always most 
obnoxious and alarming to the politicians of Western Europe, 
and, in truth, there exists no ruling power in Russia besides 
the " will of the Czar." He is, as it were, the Empire itself 
personified, and supposed to have received his authority 
direct from the Almighty. But all men are apt to measure 
foreign countries and their laws and customs by their own, 
and to condemn every institution, which does not seem to 
be founded on precisely the same principle as those they 
have been accustomed to, as objectionable and contrary to 
reason and justice. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



231 



Liberal papers, in defence of their principles, loudly raise 
their voices against any form of government which seems to 
imply the least tendency to despotism ; and often add thereby 
to the prejudices already clouding the public judgment for 
want of proper and dispassionate information, and of a care- 
ful study of the subject. 

However impracticable, nay, even disastrous, such a form 
of government might prove in countries of more advanced 
and thorough-going civilization, of smaller dimensions, and 
different geographical and other conditions — in a country 
like Kussia, where the highest state of civilization may be 
observed by the side of the most absolute barbarism, and 
which stands yet in sore need of creative improvement — the 
absolute form is perhaps the only practical one, and alone 
capable of attracting the many contrasting mental elements 
and social interests to one common centre. 

Considering the difficulties the immense extent of the 
Russian Empire must offer to the proper enforcement of any 
government measure, the necessity of an iron rule must 
strike the rational thinker at once. A long time must pass, 
and a considerable onward step in the civilizing process must 
have been made before a properly constituted parliament 
could be formed, such as would represent not only the aris- 
tocratic, but also, and in exceeding proportion, the middle 
and rural classes. 

A constitutional government, at the present time, would 
only serve to hamper the energetic and liberal action of the 
Czar Alexander II., and, to say the least, endanger the 
advancement of the country. 

Ruling with iron absolutism, the late Czar Nicholas I. 
may yet be said to have used his power entirely for the good 
of his country and people. His enlightened and persevering 
solicitude has brought light into the chaotic condition of the 
Russian Code of Law, a compilation of ages. 

The " Svoclzakon," or code for the equal administration of 
the laws throughout the whole Empire, is the work of that 
great monarch ; and if the significant meaning of the pro- 



232 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



verbial acclamation of the oppressed Russian subject: "Czar 
daleko, y Bog vyssoko ! " (the Czar lives a long way off, and 
God high above us ! ) has now lost its force, it is, in the first 
instance, owing to the inexorable, lightning-like justice of 
the Czar Nicholas, and to the energy and sound judgment 
with which his high-minded successor is following up the 
home policy of his father. 

Much ink has been spilt in this country on the occasion of 
the Khivan expedition ; and it is only now, and thanks to 
the august marriage, which has so recently united the sove- 
reign houses of Russia and England by the most intimate 
family ties, that people begin to think their suspicions might 
have been uncalled for. 

We have already seen of what nationalities the population 
of the Caucasus is composed, and the difficulties against 
which the Russian Government has Jiad to contend in the 
management of the semi-barbarous Mohammedan subjects 
of that province, ever since its protection had first been 
solicited by the Christian Principalities of Trans- Caucasia. 
The fanatical torch of Muridism had ignited the undefined 
mass of combustible material stored up in those wild moun- 
tain deserts, and given it an aim in the destruction of all 
non-professors of the Shariat. Though quelled for the time 
being, the fire still smoulders in the minds of those untutored 
tribes, and has secretly spread to the co-religionistic elements 
beyond the border, where, fed by the plundering and roving- 
propensities of a fanatical and weakly governed population, 
it has proved for many years a constant source of annoyance 
to the Russian Government, and prevented a prosperous 
colonization of a province endowed by a beautiful "Nature 
with all the qualities which, in the hands of industrious 
settlers, would soon make it one of the most important 
possessions of the Crown. 

The author's own acquaintance with Caucasian affairs 
emboldens him to assert that the Khivan expedition had not 
been undertaken a moment too early. 

The constant inroads and plundering expeditions of the 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



233 



Turkomans, accompanied in most cases by bloodshed, rapine, 
nay, the destruction of entire colonies, when all males were 
put to the sword, and women and children carried off into 
the most degrading slavery, on the one hand, and the ntter 
impossibility of obtaining redress from either the Turkish or 
Persian Governments on the other, had rendered the military 
occupation of Khiva a matter of most stringent necessity. 
In no other way could the much-discnssed and so-called 
" Act of Aggrandisement " prove of the slightest advantage 
to the Eussian Government, which (if at all deserving of 
blame) may rather be censured for its leniency towards the 
offenders, and for its tardiness in resolving to put an end 
with a high hand to this unsatisfactory state of affairs. Its 
duty was to protect at any cost the lives and property of 
their Caucasian subjects, and of all those who had ventured 
their money in the new railways and other institutions of 
public enterprise in the Caucasus, and it could do so- only 
by acting precisely as it did. Dreams of India, one may 
rest assured, were as far from their thoughts as of Tartarus 
itself. 

It may be asked what the Eussian policy portended at 
the time of the Black Sea question, and which subsequently 
led to the Crimean war ? 

The answer will without great difficulty present itself to 
the reflecting, dispassionate mind of the well-informed reader: 
Eeligious feeling and sympathy with the Greek Church 
and its numerous children, professing a faith so nearly allied 
to their own, may have furnished the prime cause to the 
pressure put upon the Turkish Government. It is, more- 
over, but natural to assume, that a great nation like the 
Eussian must have felt the obstacle to their full sway in, 
and free egress out of the Black Sea, as presented by the 
Turks, a matter of extreme and intolerable irksomeness. 

The first news of the Suez Canal scheme was received in 
this country with anything but satisfaction, and what would 
be the feelings of the British nation if the Egyptian Govern- 
ment were to think it proper to exercise a rigid system 



234 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



regarding English vessels passing by that route ? The cases 
are somewhat analogous, for the political and commercial 
interests of Eussia are as much involved in the Black Sea 
question as those of Great Britain might be influenced by 
the laws and regulations respecting the Suez Canal. 

Far be it for us to defend a breach of treaty, but a word 
of excuse can never come amiss. As regards the treaty 
itself, it had been wrung from a government humbled by a 
series of defeats and the loss of its great southern strong- 
hold. Onerous as its terms were to the feelings of a great 
nation, it might have been foreseen that sooner or later it 
would have to undergo considerable modification, if not an 
unconditional annulment. The conditions of peace imposed 
by Germany on France, after a war which the latter had 
herself provoked on far more trivial grounds than those 
which had caused the Crimean campaign, were considered 
hard and onerous by the greater portion of the English 
politicians, who seemed to consider themselves perfectly 
justified in prognosticating a speedy renewal of the struggle, 
as well as repeated attempts to reconquer provinces which 
France had formally ceded to Germany. The Germans, 
fully alive to these natural consequences, are far from re- 
joicing in the acquisition, but look upon those provinces 
merely as the most effective bulwark against any sudden 
attack on the part of their volatile neighbours upon their 
Khenish frontiers. They are prepared to make good their 
defence, but will not feel astonished if, sooner or later, they 
will have to fight again for the integrity of their newly 
acquired territory. In the seventeen years which lay be- 
tween the signing of the Crimean treaty and its modification, 
and during which the Russian Government had strictly 
maintained the conditions imposed by that Act, many events 
have happened, which have altered the political and social 
condition of Europe, and tended to deprive the treaty in 
question of its original importance, and to render all fears 
regarding the consequences of its abolition imaginary and 
devoid of substantial reasons. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



235 



Personal experience in the intercourse with representatives 
of all classes of Russian society, military and civil, have 
never afforded the writer a single instance of vindictive feel- 
ings existing in Russian minds with regard to England and 
its successes in the Crimea. On the contrary, they inva- 
riably seemed to look upon that war, though disastrous to 
their arms, as a natural and necessary phase of their political 
development. Unlike another nation, nearer home, they did 
not dream of vengeance, but with magnanimous ingenuity 
seemed to acknowledge the superiority of political and social 
advancement of their former adversaries, whose example, 
which had been so forcibly set before them, they ought to 
follow in more than one respect. 

" The Crimean war has been the commencement of an 
entirely new period for us — a period of progress moving on 
an enlightened and liberal basis. The English and French 
have taught us a good lesson, which will in time bear ex- 
cellent fruits," were remarks which the writer has frequently 
heard. No evidence of ill-feeling rankling in their hearts on 
any occasion obtruded itself in the dispassionate discussion 
of this subject. 

It must, moreover, be borne in mind that since that war 
twenty years have rolled by, and with them conquest has 
gone out of fashion and given way to a consolidating policy, 
of which no country stands in greater need than Russia. 
It will probat^y take centuries to po23ulate the Russian 



forests, their immense mineral possessions to their full 
extent, and to make manufacturing industry keep pace with 
the natural produce of the country. For the achievement 
of this object a hardy, intelligent, and industrious working 
class is a matter of absolute necessity. Conquests in Central 
Asia would not bring them these, but only serve to drain 
the old country of that vital element of which it stands itself 
in urgent need. 

That the present urbane and liberally-minded Czar is fully 
aware of this fact, he has proved by his glorious work of 




arable lands, their 



236 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



liberation of the serfs, by which he may be said to have in- 
augurated an entirely new era for his country, an era of 
freedom and progress and of a steady advance towards 
material and intellectual prosperity. 

One of the most magnificent possessions of the Russian 
Crown, a perfect paradise, defying all description, is the 
Caucasus. In order to procure for that country the blessings 
of civilization, it is above all necessary, that its borders 
should be rendered safe and respected by the wild and 
plundering hordes, who prowl about the same like so many 
packs of hungry wolves, whose business is brigandage, and 
who can hardly be said to own any master. 

For the proper utilization of the immense resources of 
that country, the help of the great civilizing agent, the 
railway, and other means of locomotion and transport must 
be called to the van. Why should there be any lurking 
cause of alarm in the efforts which are being made by the 
Russian Government towards a realization of that desirable 
object? What is more natural, than their wish to con- 
vert a province, which hitherto has proved to them but a 
source of trouble and enormous expenditure in blood and 
money, into one of extraordinary prosperity, and which 
could doubtless contribute largely to the revenues of the 
empire ? 

Having by these few lines endeavoured to lay before the 
reader a succinct material for reflection regarding the present 
politics of Russia, we now invite him to accompany us on a 
rapid flight through the realm of its history, in the hope 
that it may excite his curiosity to a more careful study of 
the same than the space of this work will allow us to afford 
him. 



CHAPTER XXIY. 

FIEST PERIOD. 

The infancy of the history of the great continent, now 
called Russia, is wrapt, like that of most nations, in clouds 
of legendary tradition, although there cannot be any doubt 
as to the temperate regions of that country having been in- 
habited at a very remote age and considerably anterior to its 
written historical records. 

The first allusion to the existence of a Russian people we 
find in Homer's writings, which tell us of a Kymmerian 
nation and a city " Kymmerion," covered by everlasting 
clouds and darkness. This description probably refers to the 
long Russian winter lit up but by occasional glimpses of the 
Aurora borealis. 

Herodotus mentions the happy and perfect " Hyper- 
boreans," who inhabited the most distant and unknown 
countries in the north and east of Europe ; the Argyppeans 
of the Ural, people with flat noses (Kalmuks?) and the 
Jssedonians, whose golden treasures were guarded by 
griffins. 

The ancient historiographers called all these nations by 
the comprehensive name of " Scythians : " Hippocrates 
describes them of puffy appearance, fat, their joints being 
hidden in the latter, and possessing little hair (all marks 
which may be observed at this day). According to Herodotus 
they cured their diseases by burning, revered their god of 
war in the form of the Holy Sword (just as the Huns of 
Attila and the Tartars of Tchingghis Khan did), lived in 



238 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Yourtes, or felt tents, drank mare's milk, of which they 
brewed an intoxicating liquor, inebriated themselves with the 
steam of hempseed, constantly sat on their horses, and 
finally distinguished themselves by their swinish habits. 
Their power was broken in the first instance by Philip of 
Macedon. Fifty years after that prince (about 350 before 
Christ) they were driven eastward by the Ghetes. Their 
remnants were fallen upon by the Sarmatians, who dis- 
persed them, and occupied their territory. Herodotus and 
Hippocrates have handed down to us the fable of the warlike 
exploits of their maidens. u When the Greeks," says the 
the father of history, " had fought against the Amazons, 
whom the Scythians call Ayor-Pata, which name is rendered 
by the Greeks in their language Androchtones (men-killers) 
for 6 Ay or ' in Scythian signifies a man, and < Pata ' to 
kill ; when, I say, they had engaged and defeated these people 
on the banks of the Thermoclon, it is related, that they 
carried away with them in three ships all such as they had 
made prisoners. When they had got out to sea, they rose upon 
their conquerors, and cut them all in pieces ; but ignorant 
of navigation and unskilled in the use of the helm, the sails 
and the oars, they suffered the ships, after they had killed 
the men, to drive at the will of the wind and waves, and 
landed at Kremnes on the Maeotian Sea. Kremnes was 
situated in the country of the independent Scythians. The 
Amazons having here quitted their ships and penetrated into 
the inhabited districts, seized the first herd of horses they 
met with, mounted them, and plundered the country of the 
Scythians. The latter could not conceive who were these 
enemies, with whose language and dress they were unac- 
quainted. They took them at first for young men of the 
same age, and came to an engagement with them, after 
which they discovered from the slain that the intruders were 
women," &c. So far Herodotus, whom, for want of space, 
we cannot follow through the whole narrative, but must 
content ourselves with a short account of the fate of these 
Amazons. 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



239 



The Scythians sent them a deputation of young men, who 
by their judicious manner succeeded in winning the confi- 
dence and love of those brave virgins. They would not, 
however, return with their husbands to their country, but 
crossing the Tanais travelled for three days in a north- 
eastern direction, " where they at last fixed their abode, 
which they yet inhabit. Hence the wives of the Sarmatians 
still retain their ancient customs. They ride on horseback, 
hunt and go to war with their husbands. 

Skymnos of Chio says of these Amazons : " The Palus 
Maeotis received its name from the nation of the Maeotians. 
Next to the Sauromatians come the Maeotians, and then the 
Jaxamates. Demetrius observes, that they gave their name 
to the Palus Maeotis ; and Ephorus says that they were the 
same as the Sauromatians (Sarmatians). It is conjectured 
that after the battle on the Thermodon the Amazons incor- 
porated themselves with these Sauromatians, and that the 
latter hence received the name of Gynalko-Kratumenoi, or 
people ruled by women." 

Strabo's account is as follows : "It is said that the 
Amazons dwelt on the mountains beyond Albania. Theo- 
phanes, who accompanied Pompey on his expedition to 
Albania, at least asserts that the Albanians were separated 
by the Amazons from the Scythian tribes of the Legi and 
Geli, and that the river Mermadalis formed the boundary 
between those two tribes. But Skassius, Metrodotus, 
Hipsicrates, and others, who were well acquainted with the 
country, asserted that the Amazons were neighbours of the 
Gargaraeans, who inhabit the northern foot of the Keraunian 
Mountains." 

These two opinions mentioned by Strabo come after all to 
the same point; for the Legi are the modern Lesghi, and 
the Geli the Jngush tribe Galgai, and the Keraunian Moun- 
tains are the northern ranges of the Caucasus as far as the 
Besh-tau. It is obvious, then, that the Amazons and their 
husbands must have resided in the Kabardah and the steppe 
of the Kuma, and been separated by the Terek (Mermadalis) 



240 



THE LAXD OF THE CZAE. 



from the Lesghians and Kistian tribes. As they were 
Sauromatians, from whom in all probability are descended 
the Ossets, who likewise formerly resided further north- 
ward, and are the Alanes of the Middle Ages, it plainly 
appears that the Amazons, Maeotians, Sauromatians, Alanes, 
and Ossets, belonged to one and the same race of the 
descendants of Japhet. 

The Amazons were said to have destroyed the right breast 
of their daughters by fire, in order to give greater strength 
and freedom to the right arm. Thus Mela states, lib. iii., 
cap. 4 : " Gens (Sarmatiae) habitu armisque Parthicae 
proxima verum lit coeli asperioris, ita ingenii. Non se 
urbibus tenent, et ne statis quidem sedibus. Ut invitavere 
pabula, ut ceclens et sequens hostes exigit, ita res opesque 
secum trahens, sernpre castra habitat : bellatrix, libera, 
indomita, et usque eo immanis atque atrox, ut foeminae 
etiam cum viris bella ineant. Atque ut habiles sint natis 
statim clextra aduritur mamma. Inde expedita in ictus 
manus quae exeritur, virile fit pectus. Arcus tendere, 
equitare, venari, puellaria pensa sunt : ferire hostem, adul- 
tarum stipendium est : adeo ut non percussisse, pro flagitio 
habeatur, fitque eis poena virginitas." 

Nearly all the ancient historians speak of these warrior- 
women, and legends referring to them are current amongst 
the Tcherkess and the inhabitants of the Daghestan. 

Herodotus probably got his information about the Sauro- 
matians from an Armenian, who may have made use of the 
Armenian word of " Ariousbanogh," which signifies " men- 
murderers," and it is not unreasonable to suppose, that he 
mistook the only barbarous term, which occurs in the narra- 
tive, for Scythian. 

Schober heard from Armenian and Tartar traders in the 
Daghestan, that they had met with relics of these people 
on certain mountains of Great Tartary, and that they 
still bear the name of Emazuhn. It is said, that they yet 
hold the men in complete subjection, keeping them merely 
for domestic servitude. The Tcherkess legend calls those 



ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF EUSSIA. 



241 



women " Ernmetsh," and the Nogai chief, who first made 
war against them, and then reconciled and married them 
into his tribe, was named Tul. The hypothesis founded on 
the similarity of these names is not altogether unreasonable. 

The Sauromatians, or Sarmatians, were (according to 
Pomponius Mela) divided into two tribes, " the Roxolans 
and Yazyghs." The former lived between the Dnjepr and 
Don, were cowardly when on foot, but splendid riders and 
extraordinarily active. The mail-armours are represented 
on the column of Trajan. 

The Yazyghs inhabited the left bank of the Danube, and 
are by many believed to be the parents of the Slavonic 
tribes, because the Slavonic word " yezykk " signifies "lan- 
guage," and the Slavonians to this day designate a person 
belonging to them as " speaking," in opposition to the 
appellation of " mute," which they bestow on foreigners ; 
so " N'yemeds " (mute) is the name for " German," but is 
also sometimes extended to natives of other countries besides 
Germany. 

In the year 70 before Christ, Mithridat conquered the 70 b.c. 
Crimea and the adjacent provinces, including Kherson, 
which countries became thus incorporated with the kingdom 
of Pontus. After his defeat and death by the Romans 
they passed into the hands of the latter. 

Besides the Scythians and Sarmatians there lived many 
nations in Russia, which all successively played their part 
in the historical drama of that country. They were : — 

1. The Alanes, whom Ammianus Marcellinus considered 
to be the Massagetes, and who lived between the Caspian 
and Black Seas. Allied to the Huns they spread over the 
whole of Europe to Spain, and at last to Africa. Their 
unexampled valour and savage humour made them the 
terror of their enemies. Remnants of this nation have been 
living on the Caucasus for a very long time. 

2. The Goths— Then; dominions, during the third century, 
extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and their hero, 
Ermanarich, compelled the Crimea and a part of the present 

R 



242 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



European Eussia to bow under his sceptre. He also beat 
the Vends, who probably were the real ancestors of the 
Russian nation of the present day. 

3. The Slavonians, who probably owe their name to the 
word " -sslovo," word, speech, were for a long time 
the terror of the Eastern Roman Empire, and nearly con- 
quered Constantinople, but were persuaded to raise the siege 
by the valour of Belisarius and a supply of money from the 
Imperial treasury of Justinian. In the year 557 after Christ, 
they succumbed to the Avarians. Nestor, the ancient Russian- 
Greek chronicler, gives us the names of their sub-divisions 
as follows : 

a. The Slovenians (speaking, or true Slavonians). They 
inhabited the Volkhov and the Lake Jlnien, and were 
probably the founders of Novgorod ; 

b. The Polotchanians, who settled in the country around 
the junction of the rivers Polota and Dwina, where to-day 
stands the town of Polotsk ; 

c. The Dregovitches, whose territory was situated between 
the Dnjepr, Pripat, and the western Dvina; 

d. The Radimitckes, who took their name from Radom, a 
chief of the Polanes, or from the town of Radom in Little 
Poland ; 

e. The Viatitchi, who inhabited the country near the 
sources of the Okka and Don. Their founder was Vjatko, a 
brother of Radom. They were not the only descendants of 
the Sarmatians, for all Slavonic tribes came from that 
source ; 

f. The Severians, who occupied part of the present govern- 
ment of Tchernigov. Their capital was Ljoubetch ; 

g. The Soiditchi, who were settled on both banks of the 

Soula ; 

h. The Polanes, between Dnjepr and Boug. They built 
Kiev, but their name afterwards was lost to them and 
bestowed on the Lekhs, who became the founders of the 
Polish Empire ; 

L The Derevia,ns, a wild tribe of warriors inhabiting the 



ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF RUSSIA, 



213 



forests of Yilna. Their principal towns were Korosten and 
Ovrutch : 

k. The Dult/abians, living on the northern Bong in Yol- 
hynia. They were severely oppressed by their victors, the 
Avarians, who haMessed both men and women to their 
carts ; 

I. The Boughians, the western neighbours of the last tribe ; 

m. The White KJiorvats, who lived on the northern slope 
of the Carpathian Mountains ; 

n. The Lutitches and Tivertses who inhabited the country 
on both banks of the Dnjestr and Prout, i.e., Podolia, 
Galizia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and who were the most 
refined of all the Slavonians ; 

o. The & r glitches , who, perhaps, had their name from the 
River Ugol. 

As regards the religion of the ancient Slavonians, the 
ancient records afford us but little information. The Russian 
Slavonians seemed to have venerated seven idols. The 
highest was " Perun," a gigantic image of whom, carved in 
wood, with a head of silver and golden moustaches, used to 
stand before the Tower of Vladimir at Kiev. (Pop off acids 
to this description golden ears and iron feet.) His name 
signifies " a blow, stroke," for he was the god of thunder 
and lightning and all the phenomena of the Heavens. In 
his hand he held a stone like a thunderbolt, ornamented by 
rubies and carbuncles, and before him blazed an everlastino* 
sacrificial flame. Cattle and even human beings were sacri- 
ficed in his honour. 

There were, moreover, Khorss, Dashbog, Stribog, Samergl, 
and Mokosh. Stribog was probably the Russian Aeolus (v. 
142 of the epic " Igor's Campaign against the Polovz "). 
Dashbog is mentioned in v. 189 of the same poem. The 
root of his name may, perhaps, be hidden in the word 
" dozhdj," rain. Khorss seems to have been the Bacchus, 
Mokosh the god of cattle (Pan) of the Slavonians. Lado 
was the god of love and bliss ; Kupalo, the god of harvest ; 
Koleda, the god of peace. 



244 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Besides the Slavonians, many other wild tribes inhabited 
Russia from the sixth to the twelfth century. They were 
the following ; 

IN THE SOUTH. 

1. The Avarians, who for many years tyrannized over the 
Slavonians, particularly the Dulyabians. They were tall, 
strong, proud, brave, crafty, savage, and cruel ; at first 
nomads, then warriors, and at last a commercial people, 
they became rich, indulged in excesses of every sort, and 
degenerated. A kind of plague annihilated them alto- 
gether. 

2. The Bulgarians, originally Tartars, separated in the 
fifth century into three tribes, of which the first went 
south and settled on both sides of the Danube ; the second 
(the Khvalisses). remained on the Yolga ; and the third 
settled on the Kama, and was called the Kamian or (vide 
Nestor) the White Bulgarians. In the year 635, their great 
Prince Kouvrat fell upon the Avarians, and drove them for 
ever from his territory. 

3. The Khazars were Tartars or Turks, who had settled 
in the Caucasus, and, although partly Christian, inclined 
to the Jewish religion. Feared as great warriors, they 
domineered over the greater part of the country, but 
were at last subjected by the Greeks and Romans. The 
fortress Sarkel, on the Don, and the place Khazan, near 
Kharkov, owed their origin to them. They all obeyed a 
Grand Khan (Kha-Khan), who resided at Atel (Etel, 
Balangiar Astrakhan). He was guarded by 12,000 soldiers. 
The great King of Persia, " Khosroes," protected his land 
against the Khazars by a wall (forty parasangs long), which, 
now called the Caucasian wall, astonishes still all beholders 
of its ruins. Several Byzantine Emperors were married to 
Khazarian princesses. Their decline began in the ninth 
century, when they lost Kherson and Kiev (the latter to the 
Varaeghian heroes " Askold and Dir "). 

4. The Petctieneghians. The Byzantine and other Oriental 



THE PETCKEXEGHIANS AXD POLOVZ. 



245 



and Occidental historians have made this people appear 
on the stage of history under a great variety of mostly 
corrupted names. We thus find them mentioned as 
" Petchenares, Patsinaks, Patsinakites, Pecenai, Pedines, 
Kangar, Bisseni," &c. The Mohammedan historian, Ibn- 
Hankal, calls them "Tckebal, or Patchbal;" others, again, 
" Bedshfagie, Bahbak, Nedshakie, Bakhtal, Kangli," &c. 
They lived over a wide tract of country, from the lower 
Volga eastward to within forty-seven days' journey of the 
Tatar river north-east of Turkestan. Since the year 900 
they were masters of the whole Black Sea coast from the 
Don to the Danube. In 966 they defeated the Khazars, 
and pushed them to the south : and in 968 they for the first 
time came into conflict with the Russ. The Grand Duke 
Svjatoslav (Rurik's grandson) promptly beat them back, but 
treacherously met with his death at their hands in 972. 
They continued to harass the Russian people until they were 
finally and completely destroyed by the Polovz in 1117. 
They were the scourge of their neighbours ; and greed, per- 
fidity, and brutal sensuality, the principal traits of their 
character. 

5. The Polovz were a nomadic tribe of the Turks. 
After a long warfare against the last nation, they at last 
defeated them, and occupied their country. The next 
objects of their aggression were the Khazars ; and since the 
middle of the eleventh century they appeared west of the 
lower Yolga, on the Don, and the coasts of the Azov and 
Black Seas, and were henceforth called by the Russians 
" Polovz," a name perhaps derived from " polovy " 
fawn-coloured. They are identical with the Romanes of 
the Greeks. Some historians supposed, that they joined 
their Mongol-Tartar victors and founded the Orda or Hord, 
which was called after its chief Noga, " Nogal," and the 
descendants of which are living to this day in the govern- 
ment of Stavropol. They were a wild nomadic tribe, who 
lived on raw meat, blood, and mare's milk; loved war and 
pillage, and were the most perfidious of barbarians. 



246 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



6. The BurtctSj neighbours of the Khazars, owe their 
name probably to the black foxes found (even to this day) 
in their country, for the Arabic word " Burtas " means 
" black foxes." 

7. The Yassi and Kassoghs are supposed to be the 
ancestors of the Tcherkess. Their country was situated 
on the shores of the Sea of Azov, a name which per- 
haps owes its origin to " Yassi." In 1022 Prince Mstislav 
killed their giant Prince Rededya single-handed, after 
which event they disappear from historical records. 

IN THE EAST. 

8. The Wldte Bulgarians. Their primitive religion was 
of the rudest kind. In the year 920 their prince, Almis, 
introduced Islamism amongst them, and they adopted 
also the Tartar language. The Bulgarians of the Danube 
spoke the Slavonic language, and were Christians. Their 
name disappeared with the conquest of Kazan. 

9. The Ungrians probably were descendants of the Huns 
or Parthians, and at a later period went by the name of 
Maghyars. They came from Lebedia (Kharkov), or swan 
country, and in 898 appeared before Kiev. 

The north of Russia was inhabited by most of the 
Tchoudish or Finnish tribes, the descendants of which are 
extant at the present day ; and which have been described 
in detail in the chapters treating of the populations of 
Russia. 



CHAPTER XXV 



SECOND PERIOD. 

THE VARAEGHS, VARANGHIANS (NORMANS). . 

The Novgorodians, Tchouds, and Krivitches — in short, the 
subjects of the Republic of Novgorod — finding that they 
could never hope to enjoy peace and prosperity under their 
own government, and tired of the everlasting differences and 
feuds between ambitious and selfish factions and families, 
in the year 862 listened to the advice of one of then- 862. 
elders " Grostomysl," and resolved to choose a king or duke, 
a mighty man of war, who might lead them to victory 
against foreign enemies and establish a strong government 
in Novgorod capable of a well-ordered home rule, and of 
insuring respect abroad. To this end they called the three 
Norman or Varaeghian brothers : " Rurik, Sineus, and 
Truver." The first established himself at Novgorod, the 
second at Bjelosero, and the third at Jsborsk. Two years 
after Sineus and Truver died, and Rurik became master of 
their duchies and founder of the Russian monarchy. 

In the same year Askold and Dir, companions in arms of 864. 
Rurik, dissatisfied about the division of lands amongst his 
principal followers, from which act they had been excluded, 
went in search of adventures on their own account. Having 
made themselves masters of Kiev, they invited other Varae- 
ghians from Novgorod to join them and settle in that town. 
Their terms being advantageous, they soon saw themselves 
at the head of a force of brave warriors, with whom already 
in the year 866 they could undertake an expedition against 866. 



248 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Constantinople. In 200 boats they appeared before that 
city, which their cruel proceedings soon filled with fear and 
terror. Their first notions of Christianity date from that time. 
879. After a reign of fifteen years Rurik died in 879, leaving 
his infant son Igor under the guardianship of his able and 
warlike friend Oleg. Rurilrs memory, notwithstanding his 
imperious rule, merits the reverence of the historiographers, 
for by uniting sundry Tchoudish or Finnish tribes with the 
Slavonians, but at the same time practically respecting the 
language, rejigion, and customs of the latter, he laid the 
foundation to that unity, which subsequently proved of 
eminent importance to the prosperity of the newly-founded 
state. 

oleg (879—912). 

His first act was a march to Kiev, which he took by foul 
means, and after having treacherously murdered Askold and 
Dir, his former friends and companions (although nomi- 
nally only tutor to the young Igor Rurikovitch), he continued 
to reign till the hour of his death. He extended the empire 
907. by his conquests, and in 907 undertook an expedition against 
Constantinople. With 2000 boats (each containing forty 
warriors) he crossed the sea, while his cavalry advanced 
direct by land upon that city. The Emperor Leo VI., the 
philosopher, thought of preventing his entry by a huge iron 
chain stretched across the mouth of the Golden Horn ; but 
Oleg landed his troops and carried on the siege with unheard- 
of cruelty and barbarity. His password was " general de- 
struction ;" and even Nestor speaks of his deeds with 
undisguised horror. He compelled the Emperors Leo and 
911. Alexander (in 911) to sue for peace. 

An extract of the treaty drawn up at that time between 
him and those emperors will prove interesting. It begins 
with the following words : — 

" We, of Russ descent, Karl Ingeld, Farlaf, Werewid, 
Rulaf, G-ucly, Ruald, Karn, Frelaf, Ruar, Aktevu, Gruan, 
Lidolfost, Stemid, sent by Oleg, the Russian Prince, and by 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



249 



all the highborn boyars, his vassals, to ye : Leo, Alexander, 
and Constantin, the great Emperors in God, in confirmation 
and publication of the love existing between the Russians 
and Christians, at the desire of our grandees and at the 
command of all Russian vassals, have by the following 
articles confirmed this love in writing, and not verbally, as 
before, and sworn to it upon our arms, according to the 
Russian faith," &c. 

Here follow the conditions of peace, which for want of 
space we must omit. 

The treaty concludes as follows 

" In order to insure a strict fulfilment of 'this treaty 
between us Russians and Christians, we have it written on 
parchment with cinnabar in two copies (Greek and Russian). 
The Greek Emperor has signed the same with his own 
hand, and sworn to the deed by the Crucifix standing before 
his face at the time, and by the Holy, only born Trinity of 
the only true God, and has handed over to us one of the 
parchments, while we, Russian ambassadors have delivered 
over to him the other, after having sworn to it for ourselves 
and also in the name of all the Russ concerning the faithful 
execution of the instrument in all that regards the peace 
and love henceforth existing between the Russians and the 
Greeks. On the second Sunday in September, on the 8th 
day of that month, in the 15th indiction from the creation 
of the world 6420 (911 a.d.)." 

What renders this curious document peculiarly interesting 
are the Yaraeghian names of the ambassadors and the terms 
of the oaths made by heathens and Christians. 

For the maintenance of his great armies Oleg levied taxes, 
of which Novgorod alone had to pay 180 lbs. of fine silver 
per annum. 

A son of a barbarous time and country, Oleg yet was a 
wise prince and great warrior. He died in the year 912. 
The legend tells us that the manner of his death had been 
foretold him. His favourite charger, the prophecy said, 
would prove the cause of his death. Finding that the 



250 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



animal had died during his campaign before Constantinople, 
he laughingly had it disinterred in order to have a look at 
the bones of this object of terror, and to prove to his people 
the fallacy of human prophecy. Placing his foot upon the 
skull of the horse, he was however bitten by a venomous 
snake, which had been concealed within it, and thus met 
after all his death by means of his favourite steed. 

IGOR EURIKOVITCH (912 — 945) 

was thirty-seven years old when Oleg died, and proved 
a worthy successor to his brave tutor. In the year 913 
he defeated the Derevians ; in 915 the Petcheneghians ; 
and in the year 941, he undertook a new campaign against 
the Greeks. He accordingly appeared in the Bosphorus 
with a fleet of 10,000 boats, which however was com- 
pletely scattered and destroyed by Theophanes, who availed 
himself on that occasion of the Greek fire. But only two 
years later we see him again ready for another expedi- 
tion against Greece. The Emperor Roman Lakapen, how- 
ever, succeeded in appeasing his wrath in time, and con- 
cluded a peace in the following terms : " We of Buss 
descent, ambassadors and guests, Ivor, ambassador of the 
Bussian Grand Duke Igor, and we other ambassadors 
(here follow fifty names nearly all Yaraeghian), sent by the 
Bussian Grand Duke Igor, by all the princes and people of 
the Bussian country, for the purpose of renewing the old 
peace and of destroying the machinations of the Devil (who 
for so many years has hated that which was good, but loved 
all hatred, malice and bloodshed) and of upholding the 
friendship existing between the Greeks and Bussians, for as 
long as the sun shall shine and the earth exist. Whatever 
Bussian intends to break this covenant, he shall, if baptized, 
receive his punishment at the hands of the Almighty God 
and be condemned to eternal damnation ; and if he be not 
baptized, then shall neither God nor Perun assoil him, his 
own shield shall afford him no protection, he shall fall by his 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



251 



own sword, by his own arrow, and he shall be a servant in 
this and the future life." 

As Igor grew older, he became avaricious and greedy of 
money. He cruelly oppressed his own subjects, especially 
the Derevians, who, however, at last, being driven to despair, 
fiercely turned upon him under their Prince Mat, in the 
neighbourhood of Korosten. Igor lost not only the battle, 245. 
but also his life, and was buried outside the walls of that 
town. 

He was a brave warrior, and, barring his avarice, a prince 
of high qualities, who proved himself ever kind to his 
Christian subjects. He was succeeded by his son 

SVJATOSLAV IGOREVITCH (945 — 972), 

who, being yet of tender age when his father died, remained for 
some years under the guardianship of his mother Olga, whom 
tradition calls " crafty ;" the Church, " holy ; " and history, 
" the wise." When already advanced in years, she received 957. 
the baptism of the Christian Church at Constantinople. On 
her return, she spared no effort to convert her son, but in 
vain. " What ! do you seriously ask me to become the 
laughing stock of my own court?" he answered her, and 
remained a Pagan to the end of his days. He took the 
reins of government into his own hands in the year 956, and 
became a hero, who conquered Bulgaria, and greatly added 
to the Russian dominions by his wars. He spent little time 
at his court, but was almost constantly in the field. His 
wars with the brave and able Emperor Tzimiskes lasted many 
years ; but he was forced in the end to make peace. He 
would have fought to the last man, but his generous an- 
tagonist, who admired the courage and spirit of the old hero, 
offered him honourable terms, and parted from him in a most 
amicable manner. On his way home, however, Svjatoslav 
was surprised at a dangerous spot in the river by his old 
enemies the Petcheneghians, who killed him with all his 
followers. Their king, Kuria, had his head cut off, and his 



252 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



skull turned into a drinking cup. The Bussians have pre- 
served his battle speeches, which, if true, are very fine. 

JAROPOLK I. SVJATOSLAVITCH (972 — 980). 

A good-natured but weak prince, reigned only eight years. 
His half-brother, Vladimir, who is said to have caused him to 
be assassinated, mounted the throne after him, although a 
posthumous child of Jaropolk was born soon after the latter's 
death. 

VLADIMIR I., SVJATOSLAVITCH (980 — 1015). 

This Grand Duke, called by history " the Great," distin- 
guished himself not only by his brilliant feats of arms, by 
the able manner in which he put down revolt, by his victories 
over the brave Yatwaighians, the powerful Metchislav, and 
the wild Petcheneghians, but also by his prudent internal 
government of the Empire, his introduction and propagation 
of the Gospel of Christ, by his reverence for the works of 
Greek art, by the building of schools and banishment of all 
dangerous superstitions, by the founding of cities and the 
colonization of his country by skilful foreigners, by his 
powerful support of the poor and helpless, and the removal 
of the dangerous Varaeghians. Amongst other princely 
virtues he possessed that of holding his own passions and 
desires in subjection, and a bright era would have followed 
his reign, if he had not divided his kingdom between his 
sons, and thereby created the pernicious strife for power 
between a host of ambitious princes, who, following their 
own selfish objects, did not seem to care what became of the 
poor unfortunate people. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



THIRD PERIOD. 

SVJATOPOLK JAROPOLKOVTTCH (1015 — 1019) 

began his reign by wreaking bloody vengeance for the 
murder of his father, Jaropolk, on the sons of Vladimir, Boris, 
Gljeb, and Svjatoslav, but was soon defeated and driven out 
of Kiev by the only surviving son of Vladimir. 

JAROSLAV VLADIMIROVITCH (1019 — 1054). 

He divided the Empire with Mstislav, Prince of Tmuto- 
rakan, and defeated the Livonians and Esthonians. Mstislav 
died in the year 1036 (probably by foul means), and Jaroslav 1036. 
reigned henceforth alone. In constant wars with father 
and brothers his family feelings had been utterly lost. He 
showed much superstitious piety, but beneath the cloak of 
the most zealous external religiosity were often hidden the 
most execrable crimes. He adhered to his father's system 
of divided power ; was brave, but cruel. On the death of 
the Metropolitan of Kiev, Theopempt, in 1051, he resolved 
to evade the usual appointment of a new Metropolitan by 
the Patriarch of Constantinople, and without, however, sepa- 
rating his Church from the Greek, to give to his country a 
Metropolitan of his own election. He, therefore, called the 
Russian bishops to Kiev, and induced them to elect Hilarion 
as the head of the Russian Church. He was a Russian by 
birth, and a pious and learned man. His ordination took 
place in the Church of St. Sophia at Kiev. 



254 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Jaroslav founded (1031) a school at Novgorod, snowed 
much respect for the fine arts, built beautiful houses, sup- 
ported and promoted industry, and introduced a book of 
laws. His superstitious piety induced him to have the bones 
of Oleg and Jaropolk disinterred and baptized. The wife 
of Jaroslav's son, Vladimir, is said to have been a 
daughter of Harold, Earl of Kent, the last of the Saxon 
kings of England. 

ISASLAV JAROSLAVITCH (1054 — 1078). 

J aroslav had divided his empire between his sons Isaslav, 
Svjatoslav, Vsevolocl, Igor, and Vjatcheslav, and thereby 
provoked the most disastrous consequences. These brothers 
re-established the supremacy of the Constantinople Patriarchs 
over the Russian Church. During this reign was built the 
monastery of the Caves at Kiev, which became the seat of 
civilization, and from which missionaries were sent through- 
out the whole of Russia. 

Isaslav was succeeded, not by his sons, but by his brother 

VSEVOLOD JAROSLAVITCH (1078—1093). 

This prince was good-natured but weak, and his reign 
proved one of the most unhappy of Russian history. Inces- 
sant wars and invasions by wild, hostile tribes, plague, 
drought, famine, and earthquakes seemed to unite for the 
destruction of all mankind. The prop of his tottering throne 
was, however, his son, the brave Vladimir Monomakh, who 
defeated Vseslav, Prince of Polotsk, the Turks, who were 
prowling in the country about Perejaslavl, the Vjatitches, 
the wild Polovz,and the sons of Rostislav and Jaropolk, whom 
he drove into Poland. The unfortunate division of the country 
into principalities neutralized, however, the effects of all his 
deeds. The year 1092 was rich in natural phenomena, and 
kept the ignorant people in a constant state of terror. The 
reign of Vsevolocl saw the erection of many convents, churches, 
1089. schools, and hospitals. The Emperor Heinrich IV. of 



HISTORY OF EUSSIA. 



255 



Germany is supposed to have had one of his daughters, Agnes 
or Adelheid, to wife. 

Vsevolod died at the age of sixty-four. He was a learned 1093. 
man for his time, knew five languages, was pious, good- 
hearted, chaste, sober, humane, but a bad ruler. His first 
consort was Anna, daughter of the Emperor Constantin 
Monomakh. She bore him Vladimir and the Princess Anna. 
His second wife was a princess of the Polovz, by whom he 
had Eostislav, Eupraxia, and Catharina. He was not suc- 
ceeded by Vladimir, who, not wishing to add to the misery 
of the people by a new war of contention for the crown, 
abstained from the throne in favour of 

svjatopolk [michael] (1093 — 1113). 

This was a bad character, and brought the most direful 
troubles on his country. The Polovz, having defeated the 
Russians, devastated the country by fire and sword, and 
carried thousands of its inhabitants into captivity. The 
father of Russian history, the venerable Nestor, painted the 
horrors of that invasion in vivid colours. The sight of the 
unhappy captives, who, naked, barefooted, and loaded with 
heavy chains, were torn from their hearths and marched off 
into foreign slavery, called forth his eloquent lamentations ; 
and the aspect of the devastated fields and the burnt home- 
steads broke his heart. Vladimir and Svjatopolk, some time 
after, took ample revenge on the Polovz ; but the country 
was split up into an ever increasing number of sub-divisions 
amongst the many princes, and daily rendered more and 
more wretched. David Igorevitch, having persuaded Svja- 
topolk to deprive the Prince Vassilko of his eye-sight, 
provoked the revenge of his family, thereby causing renewed 
and furious wars. According to Karamsin, Russia resembled 
during that reign one immense military camp, and the noise 
of arms deprived the people of all rest. 

Vladimir II. Vsevolodovitch Monomakh, who received the 
name Vassily in holy baptism, reigned from 1131 to 1125. 



256 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



Hardly had Svjatopolk closed his eyes, when the citizens 
of Kiev fell upon the grand ducal treasure and carried it 
off. They then proceeded to the extirpation of the Jews. 
While this confusion was at its height the better class of 
townsmen had elected the noble and brave Vladimir to the 
throne. His first act was the re-establishment of order and 
the banishment of the Jewish usurers from Russia. He 
strove to maintain order and peace in his country ; and his 
brave sons, Mstislav, Jaropolk, and George (Yurgi), kept 
the latter free from foreign enemies by defeating the 
Tchouds, the Polovz, and the Bulgarians of Kazan. Against 
his son-in-law, the Greek Prince Leo, he sent his son 
Vjatcheslav to the Danube. Leo, however, had already 
been stopped in his onward march by the dagger of an 
assassin; and the Emperor Alexis, afraid that Vladimir 
might take bloody vengeance for the murder of his daughter's 
husband, sent him the insignia of imperial dignity, consist- 
ing of a crucifix carved from the wood of the holy cross, of a 
goblet of carnelian of the time of Cassar Augustus, of the 
crown, chair, and the short coronation mantle which had 
served at the coronation of Constantin Monomakh, the 
grandfather of Vladimir. The Metropolitan of Ephesus, 
Neophyt, brought these things to Kiev, and some of them 
are in use at this day at the coronation ceremonies at 
Moscow. 

1114. The old enemies of the Russians, the Petcheneghians, 
having been destroyed in 1114 by the Polovz, implored 
Vladimir for a refuge on Russian territory, which he also 
granted them. Supported by his heroic sons, who were 
all devoted to him, he held all enemies in check, and restored 
to his country that peace and happiness to which it had been 

1125. a stranger for many dreadful years. He died in 1125, at the 
age of seventy- three. When he felt the approach of death he 
had himself carried to the church on the Alta, where Boris 
had been murdered, and there he also gave up the ghost. His 
first consort had been Gyda, a daughter of the King of 
England, Harold. The children were Jngeburge, who became 



HISTORY OF KTJSSIA. 



257 



the wife of Knud Lavard, Duke of Schleswig, and was the 
mother of Yaldemar I., King of Denmark ; a second daughter 
was first married to Sigurd, King of Norway, and afterwards 
to Erich Edmund, King of Denmark. The third daughter 
was the consort of the Greek Prince Alexis. 

MST1SLAV VLADIMIROVITOH (1125 — 1132) 

succeeded to the throne of Kiev. His reign was one of 
constant war amongst the princes ; and famine, inundation, 
and plague added their horrors to render the people utterly 
wretched. Mstislav, a brave and dreaded warrior, did all 
he could to keep at least foreign enemies out of the country. 
He defeated the princes of Polotsk, the Tchouds, and the 
Grand Duke Vsevolod of Novgorod. 

In the year 1131 arrived at Kiev the Greek monk 1131. 
Michael II., who had been ordained for the Metropolitan 
chair of that town, and was consequently the head of the 
Russian Church. He was a wise and pious prelate, who 
earnestly strove to make an end to civil war by reconciling 
the princes with each other; the selfish ambition of the 
latter proved, however, invincible. The exarchy of Smolensk 
dates from this time, and has existed ever since. 

Mstislav's last deed was the defeat of the wild Lithuanians, 
on whom he inflicted a terrible punishment. He died in 
1132, at the age of fifty-six, and was succeeded by his 
brother 

JAROPOLK II. VLADIMIROVITOH (1132 — 1139). 

He was a weak regent, unable to cope with the unruly princes 
and townships, of which particularly that of Novgorod gave 
him great trouble. In the year 1135 the Metropolitan Michael 1135. 
pronounced the interdict over Novgorod, which produced so 
profound a sensation, that the Grand Duke Ysevolod, Bishop 
Niphon, and the town council sent him a deputation, and 
entreated him to recall that measure. The power of the 
clergy at that time was very great, but generally well-used, 

s 



258 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



inasmuch as they strove to reconcile the conflicting parties, 
and prevent bloodshed. 

Jaropolk died in 1139. His consort had been a Yassian 
princess. At the time of his death there remained yet 
three sons of Vladimir Mononiakh, Vj a tcheslav, Andrej, and 
George Dolgoruki. He was succeeded by 

VSEVOLOD OLGOVITCH (1139 — 1146), 

who was an ambitious prince, but endeavoured to re- 
establish tranquillity and order in the empire. During his 
reign the Metropolitan Michae], mortified at his non-success 
respecting the reconciliation of the princes, returned to 
Constantinople. His departure marked the beginning of 
great disturbances in the Russian Church. 

Vsevolod, having appointed a successor to the throne in 
1146. his brother Igor, died in 1146. 

IGOR OLGOVITCH (1146 — 1146) 

reigned but a few weeks ; for the town of Kiev, afraid of 
his wild spirit, and devoted to the house Monomakh, called 
Isaslav Mstislavitch, who imprisoned him. 

ISASLAV MSTISLAVITCH (1146 — 1154). 

His reign opened with sanguinary civil wars. His uncle, 
George Vladimirovitch of Susdal, took Kiev three times, and 
compelled Isaslav to flight ; he was, however, at last beaten 
back across the Dnjepr. Brought to bay, he accepted another 
battle from Isaslav and his own brave son 'Andrej, whom he 
had banished. The battle, a drawn one, was speedily 
renewed on the Rut. Isaslav and Andrej were both severely 
wounded; but George had to beat a precipitate retreat. 
He however soon returned, took Kiev, but was again beaten 
and driven back. After this Isaslav had to march against 
Vladimirko of Halitch, defeated him, but blotted his memory 
by the slaughter of the prisoners. A terrible battle against 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



259 



Vladimirko's son, Yaroslav, remained undecided. On his 
return to Kiev he married an Abassinian princess, but died 
suddenly on the 13th Nov. 1154, deeply mourned by his 1154. 
people. He was a manly, powerful character, and Russian 
historians call him "the blessed shoot from a good root." 
One of the most remarkable events of his reign was the 
election of the Russian Metropolitan at Kiev, in the place 
of Michael, by six bishops, whom Isaslav had assembled for 
that purpose. Following the example of his ancestor, 
Jaroslav I, he strove for the independence of his Church 
from the Constantinople supremacy. Accordingly, the 
bishops elected the pious monk Clemens of Smolensk, a 
prelate deeply learned in philosophy and theology, such as 
Russia had never possessed, and who has left many writings, 
the object of which had been the edification and instruction 
of the people. 

Many of the Greek prelates, particularly the Bishop 
Niphon of Novgorod, who went so far as to call Clemens 
" a ravenous wolf," protested against his election. Clemens, 
however, remained the only head of the Russian Church till 
the year 1156, when Constantin, who had been appointed 1156. 
Metropolitan of Kiev by the Patriarch Lucas Krysobergas of 
Constantinople, arrived, and at once opened a furious spi- 
ritual campaign against the national rival. The mutual 
persecutions were, however, soon brought to an end by the 
death of both Metropolitans. 

About this time Moscow was founded. Isaslav was suc- 
ceeded by both Yjatcheslav Yladimirovitch and Rostislav I. 
Mstislavitch, who reigned but one year (1154 — 1155), for 
the former died within that time, and Rostislav was forced 
to relinquish the throne in favour of Isaslav Davidovitch, 
who again, a few days after, had to yield his dignity to 
George Yladimirovitch, who had routed his army, and taken 
possession of Kiev. 



s 2 



260 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



GEORGE (VURGl), VLADIMIROVITCH DOLGORTJKI 

1155-1157. had thus at last attained what for many years had been 
the object of his ambition. He was already in his sixty- 
ninth year when he came to the throne. Civil war menaced 
him from every side ; bnt just as he was preparing to draw 
again the old sword, he died, having reigned only two years. 
Tatishtshev describes him as having been tall and powerfully 
framed, with a fair complexion, small eyes, a large aquiline 
nose, and thin beard. His policy was crafty, but he was a 
brave and skilful man of war, passionate, and of untameable 
ambition. His descendants have continued to the present 
day. He was the contemporary of Frederick Barbarossa, 
Henry the Lion, Albrecht the Bear, and of many other 
great men. 

The Kiev townspeople detested him, and therefore objected 
to his son Andrew, or Anclrej, and chose instead 

ISASLAV III., DAVIDOVITCH (1157—1159). 

He reigned but two years, and was succeeded by 

ROSTISLAV I., MST1SLAVITCH (1159 — 1167), 

a great and high-minded prince, but who died too early 
for the welfare of the Russian nation. His reign was 
disturbed by incessant civil wars. The most remarkable 
events taking place during his reign were : the formation 
and consolidation of the Grand Duchy of Susdal and 
Vladimir ; violent clerical disputes ; disturbances in Polotsk ; 
endeavours respecting the introduction and encouragement 
of science on the part of some of the prelates ; German 
colonization at the mouth of the Dwina, and extension of 
Russian trade ; and a great victory of the Novgorodians 
over the Swedes. The most learned men of the time were 
the Metropolitan Ivan and the Archbishop Elias ; the former 
of whom is distinguished by his celebrated letter to the 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



£61 



Roman Pope, Alexander III. The spirit pervading that 
document is worthy of a more enlightened time. 

MSTISLAY JSASLAYITCH (1167 — 1170). 

This prince, whose reign was also convulsed by constant 1167-1170- 
civil wars, was distinguished for his bravery, judicious 
moderation, and justice. He is described to have been of 
middle size, handsome countenance, and unusual muscular 
strength. His death left Gljeb Yurjevitch master of Kiev. 
Having inflicted a terrible punishment on the Polovz, he 
also died in 1 1 72 and was followed by 1172. 

ANDRE J I., YURJEVITCH OF BOGOLYOUBOV. 

He had inherited the military qualities of his father, but 1172-1174. 
not his ambition, was a warm protector of the Church and 
learning, and a particular friend of Bishop Kyrill of Turov. 
The civilized portion of the nation went so far as to call him 
a second Solomon. He fell a victim to blood revenge. 
Joachim Kushko, with twenty other assassins, having first 
bribed the steward, broke into his palace at Vladimir in the 
dead of night, and that traitor having previously removed his 
sword, they fell upon the defenceless old hero, and after a 
desperate resistance succeeded in killing him. His naked 
corpse was thrown into the garden, where it lay for many 
days uncovered and unburiecl, until at last a faithful servant 
ventured back and carried his beloved master's remains to 
an honourable grave. 

JAROPOLK III. AND MSTISLAV III., ROSTISLAYICH (1174 — 1175) 

took the reigns of Government into their hands, but were 
both forced to yield them after only one year's power, which 
they had abused by oppression and sacrilege, to 

MICHAEL II., YTTRGJEYITCH (1175 — 1176), 

who reigned like his brother, Andrej, at Vladimir, but died 
the year following on the 20th June, 1176. 



262 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



He was a brave and virtuous prince and a manly cha- 
racter, who severely punished the cowardly murderers of his 
brother. 

VSEVOLOD in. j THE GREAT (yURGJEVITCH) (1176 — 1213). 

He, like his predecessor, had to contend against their 
common enemies the Rostov townspeople and the boyars, 
who had declared for Mstislav ; but he vanquished the latter 
together with his brother Jar op oik and their brother-in-law, 
Prince Grljeb of Rjasan, whom he had deprived of their 
eyesight. 

At this time took place the celebrated expedition of Igor 
of Novgorod against the robber tribe, the Polovz, immor- 
talized by a grand epic poem by an unknown author. It 
ended tragically, for Igor's army was entirely destroyed in 
a battle, which took place on the banks of the Kayala in 
the year 1185. 

1185. In the meantime the Grand Duchy of Halitch was also 
in great trouble. After the death of the wise Jaroslav, his 
son Vladimir, a drunken, dissolute youth, having been 
deposed by the people, had fled to King Bela of Hungary, 
who, however, threw him into prison and took possession of 
the throne of Halitch in his own person. 

1190. Vladimir, however, managed to escape, and fled to Kasi- 
mir the Just of Poland, who, moved by his fate, compelled 
Bela to relinquish his prey, and restored Vladimir to the 
throne. 

1185. During this time a revolution broke out at Smolensk, but 
was suppressed by Prince Davy in 1185. The Novgorodians, 
however, drove away his son and chose Jaroslav of Susdal. 
The latter took and destroyed the Swedish town Sigtuna, 
defeated the Esthonians on the Peypus lake and plundered 
Dorpat. The expedition of the Novgorodians to the Northern 
Yugoria between the Dwina and the Ob terminated un- 
happily, their entire army being destroyed. 

Several princes distinguished themselves during this reign 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



263 



by their wisdom and bravery; still the internal quarrels never 
abated. 

In the year 1196 the Grand Duke took Novgorod, but 1196. 
only a year after handed it over to Svjatoslav. 

After his death his son, George of Susdal, was to have 
had the Crown, but was superseded by his brother, Con- 
stantin, of Rostov (1216 — 1219), who defeated him near 
Lipesk in 1215, and confined him to the government of 1215. 
Susdal. Four years later this prince died, and left the grand 
ducal dignity to his brother, the above Prince George. 

GEORGE (vURGl) VSEVOLODOVITCH (CALLED THE II D> TILL 1219, 
AFTER WHICH DATE THE III d ) 

reigned from 1213 — 1216 in Susdal and Vladimir, from 
1216—1219 in Susdal alone, and from 1219—1238 again in 
both governments. 

In his reign the greatest calamity that ever befel Russia, 
the invasion of the Mongols, came to pass. These barbarous 
hordes advanced under Tchinggis-Khan and his sons from 
Chinese Tartary, and commenced their attack by scattering 
the Polovz, whose king, Kotjan, fled to the Russians. 
Onward they pushed to the Sea of Azov and the Russian 
frontier, where they overpowered the Yasses, Abassinians, 
and Tcherkess. Listening to Kotjan's representations the 
Russian princes of Halitch, Kiev, Tchernigov, and Volhynia, 
after having killed the Mongolian ambassadors, crossed the 
Dnjepr, and on the 31st May, 1224, gave battle to the 1224. 
Mongols on the river Kalka. The Russians, and in par- 
ticular the heroic Prince Mstislav, of Halitch, performed 
prodigious feats of valour, but the Polovz giving way and 
frantically falling back upon their own allies, threw the 
Russian army into confusion, thereby causing the utter 
destruction of the latter, and the death of all their brave 
leaders. 

With fire and sword the Mongols now pressed forward to 
the banks of the Dnjepr, while Dshoutshi, the eldest son of 



264 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



Tchinggis-Khan, reduced tke wkole of the Kaptchak country, 
between tke Ural and tke Don, to a waste of smouldering 
askes. All Eussia trembled, wken behold ! tke Mongols 
suddenly marcked off in a contrary direction, and, joining 
Tckinggis-Kkan in tke Boukkarak, inundated tke kingdom 
of Tkibet. 

In despite of tkis dreadful calamity, the Russian princes 
had not for an instant ceased to tear each other to pieces. 

The Lithuanians plundered Novgorod and Smolensk ; the 
JSTovgorodians, under Jaroslav, did the same to Finland,. while 
Daniel of Yolhynia overran Southern Russia. 

After an absence of seven years the Mongols under 
Oktai, son of Tchinggis-Khan, suddenly re-appeared. Ad- 
vancing into the Volga territory they utterly destroyed 
all vestiges of prosperity and civilization. Living them- 
selves in movable tents they did not see the use of towns, 
but only respected pasture lands. Having slaughtered 
every living creature in the country of the Bulgarians, they 
advanced as far as Rjasan, which town (forsaken as it 
was by Grand Duke George) they razed to the ground, 
after a most desperate resistance. The inhabitants, not 
expecting quarter, rushed upon the enemy knife in kand, 
and not one of tkem remained alive. Tke loss of tke 
Tartars was tremendous, and filled their leader's heart with 
vindictive fury. Too late perceiving his mistake, George 
now sent his son Ysevolod against the Mongols; but he 
was beaten by Baty, near Kolouma. They next took and 
destroyed Moscow and Vladimir ; and at last, on tke 4tk 
March, defeated the Grand Duke George himself on the 
Setan. George lost his life in the battle, and his body was 
afterwards found covered by heaps of corpses. The Mongols 
now spread over the whole of Russia, killing and destroying 
as was their wont. 

However, when within 60 miles of Novgorod, Baty (pro- 
bably alarmed at the immense, dense forests, and the swampy 
nature of the country, now turned almost into a lake in 
consequence of tke tkaw, and perhaps fearing to encounter 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



265 



the brave Novgorodians on such, battle ground) suddenly beat 
a retreat. After a short siege of the little fortress Koselsk, 
in the government of Kaluga, which ended in its destruc- 
tion, he went into camp in the country of the Polovz on 
the Don. 



CHAPTER XXVIT. 



FOURTH PERIOD. 

RUSSIA UNDER THE MONGOLS (1238 — 1462). 

This easy conquest of Russia by the Mongols was the 
natural consequence of the disunion of the many princes 
governing the unhappy country, as well as of the want of a 
well-defined law of succession. As it was, the death of a 
grand duke invariably became the signal to incessant feuds 
and sanguinary contentions amongst a host of sons, brothers, 
and other relations. The people were thrown from one hand 
into the other, divided, given away, and could not but lose 
in this way everything resembling unity of action and 
interest, and mutual support. The Mongols, who always 
marched in hordes of 200,000 or 300,000 men, had com- 
pletely eaten up and destroyed the country from Kazan to 
Vladimir : and Baty, at last satisfied that he had weakened 
the country to such a degree, as to make the Russian princes 
content to be his vassals as long as he restored to them their 
principalities, bestowed the grand ducal dignity on the 
1238-1247. brother of the dead George, Yaroslav II. Ysevolodovitch, on 
condition that he should consider himself vassal to the khans 
of the Kaptchak under the sovereignty of the Grand Khan. 
Baty's successors acted on the same plan, sent armies into 
the provinces and levied taxes, of which, however, they 
exempted the clergy, whose support they wished to insure 
by this artful leniency. All liberty and independence was 
now completely destroyed in Russia. Jaroslav, called the 
Restorer, endeavoured to put matters into some shape ; but 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



267 



the people's courage and confidence in their own power 
seemed to have gone for ever. The best men had fallen 
victims to the sword, and many had been carried off into 
slavery. He attempted the re- construction of the towns and 
villages, and to clear the land of the dead bodies ; but he 
hardly had the strength to encounter the Lithuanians, who 
had pounced upon Smolensk. Notwithstanding, however, 
all this misery, the feuds of the princes continued with un- 
abated vigour. With jealous fury they fought for the wretched 
remnants of the distracted country. 

Isaslav II., Prince of Smolensk, in the year 1236, expelled 123a. 
Vladimir from Kiev, and assumed the grand ducal dignity 
himself ; but, in 1240, Baty appeared also before Kiev, aud, 124 °- 
after a heroic defence, took, and completely destroyed it. 
The only town which the Mongols had not, as yet, mastered, 
was Novgorod, which was governed by the wise and noble- 
minded Alexander Nevsky, a prince gifted with extraordinary 
military and diplomatic talents. He defeated the Lithuanians 
and Knights of the Holy Sword, expelled the Swedes from 
the Neva country, and was made Grand Duke of Kiev, or the 
successor of Jaroslav II., Svjatoslav III. being deposed by 
his own nephews. Alexander, by his yielding prudence gained 
the respect and confidence of the Khan Baty or Batou, so that 
the latter gave him the whole of South Russia and Kiev, at 
the same time restoring the throne of Vladimir to Alexander's 
brother Andrej. Already during the reign of Syjiitoslav III. 
the Mongols had levied taxes within his dominions ; they 
now introduced this system of oppression also in the northern 
provinces. Selling the privilege to foreign (principally Khivan, 
Astrakhan, and Boukhara) merchants, they allowed them to 
oppress and torment the people to a frightful degree. Exas- 
perated by the cruelty of these taxgatherers, the population 
had at last killed some of these oppressors in retaliation. 
Fearing the most calamitous consequences, Alexander at once 
hastened in person to the Golden Horde ; and, with his usual 
tact and firmness, managed to avert the punishment which 
Baty-Khan was already preparing to inflict. He died in the 



268 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



year 1263, deeply mourned by a grateful people, who count 
him ever since amongst the saints. Peter the Great had his 
bones removed to St. Petersburg, and there is not one of the 
Russian emperors, who has not knelt before the shrine of 
Alexander Nevski. Many great generals have implored him 
for his support and intermission, whenever they departed for 
a great battle or an important campaign. During his reign 
the first signs of dissensions amongst the Mongol chiefs be- 
came apparent, for Nogai, one of the first generals of the 
Khan, threw off his allegiance to the latter, and proclaimed 
himself , independent sovereign of the country on the Black 
Sea Coast. After Alexander Nevsky reigned his brother 

JAKOSLAV III., PRINCE OF TVER (1263 — 1272), 

1276. and after him again, Vassilij, of Kostroma, till 1276. During 
his reign the Metropolitan Kyrill called an (Ecumenical 
Council for the purpose of establishing a law calculated to 
insure the clerical dignities being held only by men of a 
strictly blameless life and unimpeached character. The 
personal tax was raised again by the Mongols, when death 
carried him off. He was succeeded by 

DMITRI I., ALEXANDROVITCH (1276 — 1294), 

who, after five years' constant war with his brother Alexander, 
1281. had for a short time to relinquish the reins of government into 
the hands of Andrej. The latter having, with the help of 
Mengghi-Timoor-Khan, conquered Yassen in Daghestan, de- 
vastated the southern provinces of Russia, returned with an 
army of Mongols, with whom he enforced his claims. The 
powerful Nogai', however, leading Mongols against Mongols 
into the field, re-installed Dmitri, and forced Tudan-Mangu- 
Khan, the successor of Timour, to abdicate in favour of Tele- 
buga, whom he, however, soon after killed himself, and replaced 
by his brother Tokhta, who again before long defeated and 
killed Nogai. Dmitri died in the year 1294, and Andrej, who 
succeeded him, made himself very obnoxious by his bad and 



HISTOKY OF KUSSIA. 



269 



weak government. In the year 1300 he destroyed the 1300 - 
Swedish fortress Carlskrona. About this time, Daniel, 
Prince of Moscow, conquered Rjasan ; and, by fortifying 
Moscow, founded the subsequent centre of the Kussian power. 
Andrej died in 1304, and was succeeded by Michael Yarosla- 1304. 
vitch, Prince of Tver. Yurgi III., of Moscow, however, sup- 
ported by Ousbek Khan, whose sister he had married, at 
once attacked Michael, who, however, beat him with his allies 
the Mongols before Tver, making prisoners the chiefs of 
the latter, as well as of Yurgi or George's consort. The latter 
soon after suddenly died at Tver, and Michael, suspected of 
the murder, was ordered into the camp of Ousbek Khan, who 
had him killed in 1319. George now stepped into his place, 1319. 
and founded the fortress Schliisselburg on the mouth of the 
Neva. Although Dmitri-Mikhailovitch had paid him 2,000 
roubles for leaving him in peace, he persecuted him to the 
very camp of Ousbek Khan, where Dmitri, rendered desperate, 
ran his sword through him, for which deed the Khan had him 
executed, and bestowed the dignity as Grand Duke of the 
whole of Russia on his brother, 

ALEXANDER II., MIKHAILO VITCH (1327 — 1338). 

Unfortunately for him, a messenger and nephew of 
Ousbek Khan, Shevkal, was killed at Tver, because the 
people had been made to understand that he had come to 
introduce Islamism. The angry khan at once sent Ivan I., 
(Danilovitch,) Prince of Moscow, with 50,000 men against 
Tver. Alexander tied, but was executed in 1338 in the 1338. 
horde of Ousbek Khan. Ivan united Tver with Moscow, 
erected churches, and ingratiated himself with the people by 
his charitable deeds, which procured for him the appellation 
of "Kalita" (purse). He surrounded Moscow with new 
palisades, and began the construction of the Kreml in 13 39. 1339. 

He was succeeded by his son Simon, who called himself 
Grand Duke of all Russia, and received the appellation of 
" the Proud," in consequence of his severity to the Russian 



270 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 

princes. During his reign began the degeneration of the 
1342. Mongols. In 1342 the Pleskovians conquered Narva, and 
1347. in 1347 the Russians defeated King Magnus of Sweden, 
who had come to convert them to the Roman faith with the 
edge of the sword. Russia began to recover; soon, how- 
ever (1346 — 52), the plague appeared, committing great 
ravages. Amongst the victims was the Grand Duke himself. 
1352. Tchanibek-Khan called Ivan II. of Moscow to the grand 
ducal throne. During his reign the provinces of Moldavia 
and Yallachia made themselves independent of Russia. The 
domination of the Mongols advanced with rapid steps 
towards their final collapse. The good Khan Tchanibek 
was murdered by his own son Berdibek, who also caused his 
twelve brothers to be executed. His extravagant exactions 
spread terror throughout the whole of Russia, until he in 
his turn was murdered, and followed by Kulpa, whose sons 
were Christians. Navrus, a descendant of Tchinggis-Khan, 
had them, however, assassinated before they had been in 
1359. power five months. At the death of Ivan in 1359, he 
appointed Dmitri Constantinovitch of Susdal Grand Duke 
of Russia. The latter, however, voluntarily retired to his 
own principality, and left the government to Dmitri IV., 
who had himself also confirmed by Murut-Khan. This 
chief had attained that dignity in consequence of a series 
of murders. Navrus had been murdered by his general, 
Khidyr ; who again was killed by his own son Tamir- 
Khosha, who soon after fell by the hand of Tennick Mamai, 
who thus made room for Murut. Murder, confusion, and 
strife reigned throughout the country. The Russian princes 
did not know any more whom they should obey as the 
Kaptchak empire was fast crumbling to pieces. The plague 
depopulated the country ; the Teutonic knights devastated 
Livonia ; and Olgerd of Lithuania inundated Little Russia 
and Volhynia with fire and sword. On the 30th November, 
1368. 1368, he defeated the Russians on the Lake Trostenskoi, 
marched before Moscow, and only the severe weather and 
want of provisions forced him to raise the siege. In conse- 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



271 



quence of the intrigues of - Michael of Tver, who endeavoured 
to get the Khan Mamai to entrust him with the goverment 
of Russia, Dmitri himself repaired to the Khan, who con- 
firmed him without difficulty. In the year 1374 the 1374. 
messengers of the Khan, who had behaved with most pro- 
voking arrogance, were murdered at Neezhne'i-Novgorod. 
Mamai prepared for a war of extirpation against Dmitri, 
who, after having defeated Michael of Tver, had subjected 
the Bulgars of Kazan. In 1377 the Mordvins led the' 1377. 
Mongol Prince Arab-Shah into Russia, who razed Neezhnei- 
Xovgorod to the ground. In revenge the Russians 
devastated the country of the Mordvins, which brought the 
Khan back again to Russia ; where, however, he was met 
by Dmitri on the 11th August, 1378, on the banks of the 1378. 
Vosha, and completely beaten. A second time, on the 8th 
September, 1380, he was defeated by Dmitri on the Don, 1380. 
who since that battle went by the name of Donskoi*. For- 
saken, however, by the other Russian princes, he was 
overcome during the next year by Tokhtamysh-Khan, 
who had replaced Mamai, and now burnt Moscow. Dmitri 
saw himself obliged to buy peace by the payment of 
a heavy tribute, and by surrendering his own son to 
Tokhtamysh as hostage. About this time the Permians 
were baptized, and the first firearms introduced into Russia. 1389. 
Dmitri died in 1389. He was one of the bravest and 
most excellent princes that ever lived, and was succeeded 
by his son 

VASSILY II., DM1TROVITCH (1389 — 1425). 

During his reign the Tartar conqueror, Tamerlane, or 1395. 
Timour, destroyed the power of Tokhtamysh, and with him 
made an end to the domination of the Mongols. But he 
himself jiow marched upon Moscow. Murder and desolation 
accompanied him wherever he went. Dmitri had already 
opposed him with an army of 400,000 men, when he sud- 
denly again turned southward and destroyed Azov. At the 



272 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 

same time the Grand Duke was threatened by another war, 
at the hands of Vitovt, or Vitold, Grand Duke of Lithuania, 
who had got hold of the whole of South Russia: but his 
ambition induced him first of all to measure swords with the 
Mongols, especially as Vassilj was at that time occupied 

1399. with the conquest of Bulgaria. On the 12th August, 1399, 
he offered battle to the chief Ecligei, who, however, proved 
his master, and completely beat him. Notwithstanding 

1402. this defeat, however, he in 1402 ejected Yurgi Svjatoslavitch 
from Smolensk, and the lands of the latter remained 
incorporated with Lithuania for 110 years. Vassilj, in 

1407. 1407, began an unfortunate war against the Teutonic 
knights, and reconciled in the same year the Livonians 
and Pskovians. The act drawn up on that occasion gave 
him for the first time the title of emperor. About this 
time the Mongols marched again upon Moscow, the 
pillage of which city could only be avoided by the pay- 
ment of a fine of 3000 roubles. Edigei devastated the 
country in every direction, but in 1411 withdrew again, 
and settled on the shores of the Black Sea. Vassilj died 

1425 in 1425. 

VASSILJ III., VASSILJEVITCH (1425 — 1462), 

the son of the last Grand Duke, was ten years old, when 
he came to the throne. Confirmed by the Mongol Khan, he 

1434. fought against the Lithuanians, but in 1434 was dethroned 
by Yurgi or George Semeika, prince of Halitch, soon after, 
however, again re-instated by his people. Again the Mongols 
under Makhmet devastated Russia, and Dmitri Yurgjevitch 

1446. in 1446 took Moscow, dethroned, and blinded the Grand 
Duke. The people again stood up for the latter, drove 
Dmitri back to Novgorod, where he met with his death by 

1453. poison in 1453. Under the co-regency of his son Jvan, 
Vassilj defeated the Novgorodians ; he was however made 
prisoner at the battle of Susdal by the Khan Ulu- Makhmet, 
who gave him his liberty on his paying a heavy ransom. 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



273 



Vassilj called many artists and men of science to the country. 
During his reign was instituted the Concilium of Florence, 
the last attempt at a unification of the Greek and Roman 
churches, which however proved futile. He died 1462 and 1462. 
was succeeded by his son, 



T 



GHAPTEE XXVIII. 



FIFTH PERIOD. 

IVAN III., vassiljevitch (the great) (1462 — 1505). 

Having restored order in the interior of the empire, he 
determined on the expulsion of the Tartars. He accordingly 
refused paying the tribute to Akhmet-Khan. The Khan of 
the Crimea whose friendship he had secured by assisting him 
to his dignity, marched against Akhmet-Khan, who had 
been already preparing for a campaign against Ivan. The 
latter gaining time in this manner for the completion of his 
warlike arrangements laid siege to Kazan, which he destroyed 

1469. (14 69). After a sanguinary war, which lasted two years, and 
during which he committed cruelties and devastations, which 
did not by any means distinguish themselves favourably from 
those of the Mongols, he in 1471 laid siege to Novgorod, and 
forced the venerable republic, that for six centuries had 
maintained her independence, to submission, in consequence 
of which it gradually sank to the level of a little country 
town. He also subjected the Permians, who belonged to 

1473. Novgorod. In the year 1473 he married Sophia, daughter 
of the Byzantine Emperor Emanuel, which event procured 
him the imperial arms, the two-headed eagle, and from 
which time he called himself Samoderyeds or autocrat of all 
the Puss. At the instigation of the jealous Kasimir of 
Lithuania, the ally of the latter, Akhmet-Khan again invaded 
Russia, but was totally defeated in 1472 on the Okka. Allied 
to the Tauridian Khans, Ivan refused to pay the stipulated 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



275 



tribute to Akhmet, who at once set himself in motion against 
him. But the Crimean Khan Mengghi Khirei as promptly 
invaded Lithuanian Podolia, while the Crimean Czarevitch 
Nordulat marched direct upon the defenceless camp of the 
Golden Hord. In October Ivan and Akhmet met face to face 
on the Oukra, observed each other during some weeks, until 
at last Ivan commenced his retreat to Krements, where he 
intended taking up a more advantageous position. But the 
retreat degenerated into a rout of his discouraged army. 
Fortunately for Ivan, Akhmet also returned to his country, as 
he had just received the news of Nordulat's attack on the 
hord. Near Azov, however, the Shevan prince Jvak threw 
himself into his way and destroyed his army, Akhmet 
himself losing his life in the battle. This was the death- 
blow to the power of the Mongols in Russia. Ivan now 
brought the Lithuanians and Tchoucls to their senses, took 
Tver and after the discovery of the Arkhangelski mines had 
coins struck with his own image. He also subjected the 
Votiaks. In 1492 he forced the Grand Duke Albrecht of 1492. 
Lithuania to make over his country to him. 1497 saw the 1497. 
conquest of Siberia. His war against the Teutonic knights 
ended badly for him, for he was beaten by their Grand 
Master Plettenberg and forced into a peace of 50 years. Ivan 1501. 
had made Russia independent and laid the foundation to her 
greatness as well as to the enslavement of her inhabitants. 
The barbarous domination of the Tartars had left him a 
humbled and obedient mass of people, and the introduction 
of tributes and taxes from the whole of Russia. He iotro- 
duced a new book of laws, which he enforced by another Tartar 
legacy, the knout, slavery, and death. His death took place 
in 1505 and he was succeeded by his second son Vassilij, 
the elder brother Dmitri being at the time imprisoned for 
conspiracy against his father. The extent of the Russian 
empire amounted at that time already to 47,000 square miles. 

VASSILY IV., VASSILJEVITCH (1505 — 1534). 

He defeated in 1506 the Khan of Kazan, Akhmet- Amin; 1506, 



276 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 

destroyed his camp two years later, and forced him to sue 
1514. for peace. In 1514, he wrested Smolensk from the Lithua- 
nians and united it, notwithstanding the lost battle of the 
1530. Orsha, with Russia. In 1530 he vanquished the people of 
Kazan. In 1510 he had subjected the free town of Plaskov ; 
in 1517 he treacherously threw the Prince of Rjasan and 
Prince Yassilj Semeika of Severia into prison, and united 
their principalities with Russia. He had first been married 
to Salomeh, daughter of a nobleman of Tartar descent ; but 
as he had no children by her, he separated from her by 
divorce, and sent her to a convent. He then married Helen 
Glinski of Lithuanian descent, who, on the 25th August 
1530, gave birth to Ivan IV., whose memory is still execrated 
1534. by the Russian people. Vassilj died in 1534. 

IVAN IV., VASSILJEV1TCH (1534 — 1584) THE TERRIBLE, 

being only little more than three years old at the time of his 
father's death, was yet declared Czar under the regency of 
his mother and uncle, Michael Glinski. The latter, however, 
having remonstrated with his sister regarding her dissolute 
conduct, was deprived of his eyes by Helen, and starved to 
death in a monastery. The second uncle of the young Czar, 
Andrej, was also imprisoned, and soon afterwards murdered. 
The Kazanians rose in open revolt at the instigation of the 
Lithuanians ; the Crimean Tartars again attacked Russia, 
while the Lithuanians themselves, under Sigismund, invaded 
the empire in the west. The Russians soon suppressed the 
revolt of Kazan, and having beaten the Tartars, concluded 
a peace of five years with Lithuania, according to which the 
fortress Sebesh passed into their hands, while Gomel re- 
1538. mained with Lithuania. Helen died of poison in 1538, and 
her lover, Prince Ivan Tjelepnev Obolenski, was thrown into 
prison and starved to death. Now began a time of tyranny 
and horror under the regency of the boyars Shuiski, Glinski, 
and Bjelski. Vassily Shuiski, the probable assassin of 
Helen, first seized the reins of government, but soon after 



HISTORY OF EUSSEA. 



277 



relinquished them again into the hands of his brothers 
Ivan Mikhaflovitch, and Feodor Ivanovitch Skopin. All 
governed by murder and tyranny, and fostered in the 
young prince's heart the most pernicious passions, until 
they were superseded by the Glinskis, and died on the 
scaffold. 

In the year 1541, the Khan of the Crimea suddenly 1541. 
appeared at the head of a large army on the Okka, but was 
defeated by the Russians. In 1545, the fourteen-year-old 1545. 
Ivan commenced to reign himself under the influence of the 
Glinskis, and soon gave evidence of that brutal cruelty for 
which he has received the unenviable appellation of " the 
Terrible." The party chiefs fell by the axe; Buturlin, a 
high officer of the court, had his tongue publicly torn out of 
his throat, because he had made use of disapproving language. 
Ivan in the same year originated the celebrated body- 
guard, the Strelitses. On the 16th January 1547, he was 1547. 
solemnly crowned, and married that same year Anastasia 
Romanovna, daughter of Prince Romanov Yurjevitch, a 
noble-minded lady, who, by her piety and pure character, 
exercised a favourable influence on her husband, but who, 
unfortunately, died too early for the happiness of the Russian 
people. About this time he had also the Ulozhenje (the 
Russian code of law) revised and augmented. In the year 

1552, he destroyed the town of Kazan, and made a prisoner 1552. 
of the Khan Mohammet Edigei, who, on the 8th January 

1553, received holy baptism, and married the daughter of 1553. 
the Russian noble Anclrej Kutusov. About this time, the 
Republic of the Donski Cossacks was founded. In 1555, 1555. 
Ivan entered upon a war with Esthonia and Livonia, which 
ended however unfavourably for him ; for Livonia submitting 

to Poland, and Esthonia to Sweden, he became embroiled 
with those two powers, the consequence of which was a war 
terminating, in 1567, by an armistice with Poland, and an 
alliance with King Erick of Sweden, to whom he left 
Esthonia, His endeavours to procure German artists and 
men of science were frustrated by the policy of the Hanseatic 



278 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



Towns and of the Teutonic knights, who feared the enlighten- 
ment of the Eussian people. 

The year 1553 saw the plague in Russia ; the inhabitants 
of the steppes and mountains of the government of Kazan 
rose in revolt and killed the Russian officials ; and Ivan, on the 
point of taking the field against the rebels, fell seriously ill, 
which caused great disputes regarding the succession to the 
throne, some of the boyars refusing to acknowledge Ivan's 
son Dmitri. On his recovery, he suppressed the Kazan 
revolution with his usual cruelty. Like an infuriated mad- 
man or tiger he raged in Novgorod, Tver, and Moscow. In 
the first town alone he caused the death of 60,000 people. 
He, in company with his favourite son, Ivan, went about 
armed with axes, and slaughtered the unhappy people that 
his bloodthirsty hangmen had hunted up, and driven to the 
shambles. After he had tired himself out with bloodshed, 
and struck terror into the boldest hearts, he endeavoured to 
form an independent kingdom of Livonia, which he destined 
for the husband of his niece, Prince Magnus ; but was pre- 
vented by the unsuccessful siege of Reval, as well as by the 

1571. invasion of the Khan of Astrakhan, who, in 1571, penetrated 
the empire as far as Moscow, which he burned, with the 
exception of the Kreml, carrying off more than 100,000 

1572. prisoners. A year after, however, when repeating his incur- 
sion, his army was utterly annihilated, at Molody, by Prince 
Vorotynski, whom the Czar, about nine months after, had 
roasted alive on trivial grounds. In the face of all these 
fluctuations in the fortune of war, he managed however to 
conclude peace with all his neighbours on advantageous 
terms. 

1582. In 1582 his son Ivan died in consequence of a wound 
inflicted by his own father, whom he had opposed in the 
ill-treatment of his wife. The Czar, mad with rage, lifted his 
heavy stick and struck him on the head, that he died. This 
deed put a temporary stop to his insane passion. Horrified 
at his wickedness, he wanted to go into a monastery, but 
death prevented him. 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



279 



On the 18th March, 1584, after having exhorted his weak- 1584. 
headed, gentle son Feodor to govern always in the fear of 
God, and with love and gracious kindness rather than with 
severity, this contradictory character breathed his last. Not- 
withstanding all his faults, it must be said of Ivan IV. that 
he possessed no small amount of common sense, that he broke 
the dangerous power of the boyars, maintained the inde- 
pendence of the Russian Church, and seriously endeavoured 
to introduce civilizing elements into the country, and, with- 
out allowing proselytism amongst his subjects, invariably 
showed great tolerance in his conduct to foreigners dwelling 
within his dominions. His character had been corrupted by 
the unprincipled guides of his infancy, by his profligate 
mother and her family, who did all in their power to awaken 
and develop the animal passions that nature had already but 
too abundantly implanted in him. That he was susceptible 
to good influences, his government during the life-time of 
his first noble-hearted consort has amply proved. He was 
succeeded by his eldest remaining son, 

feodor i., ivanovich (1584 — 1596), 

a prince weak in mind and body, for which reason his father 
had appointed a regency composed of the boyars, Yurgjev, 
Belskoi, Shniskoi, and Mstavskoi, who, with a board of thirty 
councillors, were to carry on the government. But Boris 
Godounov, a Tartar by birth, and brother-in-law of the Czar, 
an ambitious and able personage, knew how to take advan- 
tage of the differences existing among the regents, and soon 
rendered them completely harmless by the agency of poison 
and banishment. Having thus cleared the road, he took the 
reins of government into his own hands, and to all appear- 
ance handling them with prudent moderation, he did not 
shrink from any crime which might bring about the end of 
the Rurik dynasty, and elevate his own family to the throne. 
No public scaffold shocked the sight of the people, but all 
the more actively did he deal out destruction in secret. His 



280 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



first victim was the younger brother of the Czar, Prince 
Dmitri, and dreadfully real in its effect was his feigned re- 
sentment of the murder. The son of Feodor's brother Ivan, 
the new-born daughter of Feodor, in fact, every one, who in 
the remotest degree seemed to stand in his path, fell by 
poison, club, or dagger. Feodor founded Tobolsk in 1587, 
concluded a peace with Sweden in 1595, by which he obtained 
Inghermanland and Esthonia ; he also made peace with the 
Tartars. Feodor's death terminated the Yaraeghian-Norman 
dynasty, and Boris Godounov ascended to the throne of 
Russia. 

Ivan IY. had accustomed the people to blind terror ; the 
most inhuman tyranny was submitted to with adoring grati- 
tude, as coming from a ruler, who, as the Head of the Church, 
was worshipped as a being representing God on earth. TThat 
wonder if this tyrannical system penetrated into the inmost 
bosom of family life ? The master of the house was absolute 
despot and tyrant. He could sell his children four times, 
and his wife had no protection whatever against his arbitrary 
power. 

Boris Godounov concluded a treaty with Sweden against 
Poland, but in 1600 entered upon an armistice of 20 years 
with the latter. He built Beresov and fortified Smolensk 
with stone walls, encouraged industry, and secured the ser- 
vices of many foreign artizans, but he destroyed the last 
remnants of the liberty of the people. The towns were de- 
prived of their privileges, the peasants fettered to the soil 
and subjected to positive serfdom. Another calamity in the 
shape of famine befell the unhappy people, and Moscow alone 
counted more than 100,000 dead. Several adventurers, pro- 
fiting by the excitement of the afflicted nation, proclaimed 
themselves Prince Dmitri. The first, Yakhkov Otrepiev, 
an escaped monk and descendant of a poor, noble family, 
fled to Poland, where he declared himself to be the murdered 
Dmitri, son of Ivan, and Feodor's eldest brother. Returning 
to Moscow, he was imprisoned, but escaped again to Poland, 
where he managed to deceive Prince Adam Yikhnevetski, 



HISTORY OF EUSSIA. 



who married him to Marina, the daughter of the Palatine of 
Sendomir, by whose influence he soon collected a sufficient 
force with which to maintain his pretended right to the 
throne. Strengthened by a considerable afflux of Russian 
partizans, he defeated Boris' army at Novgorod, but was him- 
self beaten a year after by the Czar, near Sevsk. In 1605 Boris la- 
dled by poison, and several revolts at Moscow (got up 
in the false Dmitri's favour, in consequence of which the 
generals of Feodor II., the son of Boris, espoused the Pre- 
tender's cause) enabled him soon to make his entry into Mos- 
cow, where his so-called mother publicly acknowledged him. 
But his cruel conduct to all whom he suspected to doubt his 
identity, and the preference which he extended to the Poles, 
to whom he owed his success, drew upon him the hatred of 
the people. The year 1606 saw already a powerful conspiracy, 
headed by Prince Vassilij Shuiskoi, preparing his downfall. 
On the 17th May they surprised him in his castle, and on 
the widow of Ivan IV. suddenly declaring against him, he 
was forthwith assassinated. His wife Marina escaped, but 
the rest of the Poles were killed, and Shuiskoi elevated to 
the throne by the boyars, under the name of Vassilij IV. He 
proved, however, a weak character, and unable to cope with 
the rebellious elements smouldering within, and every now . 
and then flaming up from the demoralized masses. Soon a 
new fictitious Dmitri appeared on the scene in the person 
of Ivan Bolotnikov, formerly a schoolmaster in Sokola. 
While marching upon Moscow, he was met, defeated, and 
imprisoned. At the same time a third Dmitri fiction, the 1609. 
Russian priest Ivan, created much excitement in Poland. 
Recognized by Marina as her husband, and supported by 
her father, he advanced upon Moscow with an army, the 
kernel of which consisted of the Swedish auxiliary ttoojds, 
who had deserted Yassily IV. because he could not pay 
them. Unnerved by famine, the town of Moscow gave up 
their Czar Vassilij, who was at once shaved and turned into 
a monk. During the siege, however, the pseuclo-Dmitri, 
while out hunting, got killed by a Tartar Chief, and his 



282 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



followers, under the leadership of the Cossack Zarutchki, 
elevated Marina (who promised soon to present the nation 
with another questionable Prince Dmitri) to the throne. An 
unheard-of state of confusion ensued. While the boyars 
elected Vladislav, son of the King of Poland, for their Czar, 
a fourth candidate for the Dmitri identity, a certain Sidor, 
cropped to the surface, but ended soon after on the gallows. 
Owing to the overbearing conduct of the Poles, the reign of 
Vladislav presently became highly disgusting to the people. 
The Novgorodians, led by a butcher, Kosma-Minin, were the 
first to rise against Vladislav. Uniting with Prince Dmitri, 
Pozkarski, and Prokop Lippenov, at Perejaslav, they marched 
upon Moscow. Hearing of their approach, the citizens fell 
upon the Poles, but the latter being reinforced caused a 
terrible slaughter amongst the rebels, and set fire to the city 
in five places. However, now the whole nation rose like one 
man, and before 1612 not a single Pole remained on Russian 
ground. The country, nevertheless, by this time was a 
desert, and all traces of civilization had disappeared during 
the fifteen years of anarchy and confusion. Foreign enemies, 
profiting by this state of affairs, attacked on every side, and 
the Swedes took Novgorod. When on the edge of the abyss 
of entire annihilation, the boyars at last recovered them- 
selves so far as to proceed to the election of a new Czar ; and, 
after many stormy debates, their choice, as well as that of 
the clergy and the deputies of the towns, fell upon Michael 
Romanov (then a youth of 16) the son of the Metropolitan 
Philaret, and by his mother Anastasia, grandson of Ivan IV. 
the Terrible. 



CHAPTEE XXIX. 
SIXTH PERIOD. 

MICHAEL I. j ROMANOV (1613 — 1646), 

was elected Czar of Russia on the 21st February, 1613, 
and his entry into Moscow took place on the 19th April of the 
same year. He lost no time in getting the Boyars to draw 
up a deed testifying to his legal election, and insuring the 
right of succession to his heirs. On his part he promised 
by that same document to protect the religion of the country, 
and to maintain the privileges of the nobility ; neither to 
enter upon any war, nor to make new laws, or alter the old 
ones, without the consent of the Imperial Council ; and to 
have no question of law adjudged and decided directly by 
him, but strictly in conformity to existing laws. This deed, 
a kind of Act of Constitution, does not appear to have 
enjoyed the respect of future generations. 

Michael tried to restore order within his dominions by 
means of a standing army. A few years after he defeated 
the Cossack Zarutchki — who had married Marina, the widow 
of the two spurious Dmitri, and disturbed the country by 
pillage and brigandage — and had him executed at once. 

On the 27th February, 1617, he concluded a peace with 
Sweden at Stolbova, returning to them Inghermanland, 
Karelia, Kexholm, and the country as far as the river Lava, 
and paid them a sum of 200,000 roubles besides. The 
Swedes on their part restored to him Novgorod and the 
other territories which they had taken. 



284 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



Vladislav of Poland proving too strong for Pozharski, 
advanced to Moscow, and devastated the country through 
which he passed. Michael put an end to this war by the 
Peace of Devilrna (11th December, 1618), which cost him 
Smolensk, Severia, and Tchernigov. Vladislav returned to 
him the Russian prisoners, amongst whom was Philaret, 
his own father, who henceforth lent his assistance and 
advice to his government. Desirous of raising the condition 
of Russian industry and trade, he entered into commercial 
treaties with Persia and China. In 1632 he opened another 
campaign against Poland, in consequence of which he lost 
all former conquests, and had to give up all claims on 
Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland ; but, on the other hand, 
the Poles formally abandoned their claims to the Russian 
throne. He signed also a treaty with the Grand Sultan, by 
which the latter promised to prevent the Khan of the Crimea 
from any renewed invasions of the Russian territories. 

Michael proved himself to have been a most able politician, 
and considerably added to the extension of the empire, so 
that at his death his own son saw himself master of a country 
not less than 255,000 square miles in extent. He died in 
the year 1646. 

ALEXEJ I., MIKHAILOVITCH (1646 — 1676), 

ascended the throne at the age of sixteen, and was 
married by his tutor to the latter's sister-in-law, Maria 
Miloslavka, Boris Morozov (the tutor) and several other 
favourites had completely usurped the government, until, 
after several revolts in Pleskov and Novgorod, Moscow at 
last rose and despatched the favourites. Morozov alone was 
with difficulty saved by the Czar. 

During these disturbances two new fictitious Dmitris were 
heard of. One of them endeavoured, by some characters 
burnt into his shin, to prove himself to be the son of the 
first pretender Dmitri, born in prison. At first protected * 
by King Vladislav of Poland, but subsequently deserted by 



HTSTOEY OF RUSSIA. 



:255 



Kasiruir, he fled to Sweden, and thence to Duke Charles of 
Holstein, who delivered him to the Czar on the receipt of 
an acquittal of a debt he had contracted in Moscow. The 
other, who professed being the son of Vassilij III., dis- 
appeared suddenly, and was never heard of again. Adroitly 
profiting by the jealousy existing between Sweden and 
Poland, Alexej, in 1651, undertook a war with Poland, from 1654 
which power he again wrested Kiev, Tchernigov, Severia, 
and Smolensk. He then attacked Sweden, with whom he 
did not make peace until 1661, at Kardis. The Poles, sup- 1661. 
ported by the Crimean Tartars, again obliged him to go to 
war, which ended with the armistice of Andrussov (1667), 1667. 
his former conquests remaining intact. A revolt at Moscow, 
caused by the appearance of false copper coin, was drowned 
in torrents of blood : 4000 persons perished, of whom 500 
were hung. 

A new rebellion, under Hetman Stenko Eazin, undertaken 
in revenge for his brother's execution, by which the Volga 
territory was pillaged and devastated, and the town of Yaik 
(Ural) and Tarki in Georgia taken, was temporarily quelled 
by the governor of Astrakhan, Prosorovski, who compelled 
Stenko to retreat to the Volga. Soon after, however, he 
rose again, took the flotilla on the Volga, and induced the 
crew (6000 Strelitses) to join him. He now assumed the 
title of Czar, and conquered Astrakhan. In 1671, however, 1671. 
his army, which had increased to a strength of 200,000 men, 
was routed by Prince Dolgorouki and General Shermatov. 
Stenko himself fell into the hands of the victors, and was 
executed. In consequence of his treaty of alliance with 
Poland, Alexej made war on Turkey, but was left in the 
lurch by the other Christian powers, and did not survive its 
termination. 

He established a mounted postal service, silk and linen 
manufactures, encouraged the working of iron and copper 
mines, and improved ship-building. During his reign the 
Behring Straits were discovered by the Cossack Deshnev. 

Alexej died in the year 1676, leaving two sons by the iq;^ 



286 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



first consort Maria, Feodor and Ivan ; by his second mar- 
riage with Natalia Narizhkin, Peter the First, afterwards 
called the Great. 

FEODOK III., ALEXEJEVITCH (1676 — 1682), 

was a prince of noble qualities, but delicate health. Averse 
to war and violence, he took great pains concerning the 
improvement of the internal condition of the country. He 
continued, however, the Turkish war, until the defeat of the 

677. Turks in 1677. The Poles having made peace with the last 
power, and presuming on Feodor's pacific disposition, now 
insisted upon the restoration of a portion of their former 
conquests. Sooner than go to war Feodor satisfied them by 
an extension of their Lithuanian boundaries, as well as by the 

678. payment of a sum of money. In the following year the 
Turks reconquered the Oukraine, but could not hold it, 
owing to the want of provisions. This war terminated by 

680. the peace of 1680 at Raclzin, and the Zaporoghian Cossacks, 
who had been its primary cause, remained under the Russian 
sovereignty. Feodor did much towards the refinement of 
the barbarous ways of his people, by the establishment of 
schools, a just administration of the laws of the country, by 
his protection of the arts and sciences, and the introduction 
of a superior church music. He put an end to the exorbitant 
pretensions of the nobility to the hereditary succession to 

632. the higher Government offices by burning the genealogical 
registers, by which act the talent of the lower classes became 
available for the benefit of the country. He endeavoured to 
embellish the towns by artistic architecture, and to improve 
agriculture by the introduction of fine Prussian horses. 

Having, with the consent of the grandees of the empire 
(and passing over his own imbecile brother I van), appointed 
his youngest and half-brother Peter to be his successor, he 
died in 1682, leaving no children of his own. 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



287 



PETEE I., THE GKEAT (1682 — 1725), 

was only ten years old, when Alexej died. His ambitious 
sister Sophia, therefore, with her favourite, Prince Galyczin, 
endeavoured to get the regency into their hands. To this 
end they created a rebellion amongst the Strelitses, from 
which Peter and his mother had- to take refuge in the con- 
vent of the Holy Trinity at Moscow, and but for the prompt 
arrival of the cavalry would have fallen a victim to his 
sister's ambition. His uncle, Anastasius Narizhkin, was 
killed, and Sophia, who had been formally appointed regent, 
had Ivan crowned together with Peter, and made the former 
marry in 1684, hoping that he would have issue, and thereby 1684. 
exclude Peter from the throne. The latter in the meantime 
was sent with his tutor Lefort to a distant village. This 
year saw the religious controversy between the Abakunasts 
and Starovertsi, and the revolt of the Strelitses, under their 
General Khavanski, which was, however, soon got under by 
the prompt mobilization of all the vassals. Another revolt 
of the Strelitses was met by Sophia with such firmness and 
severity, that the conspirators were compelled to appear in 
the Kreml with ropes round their necks, and humbly to sue 
for pardon. 

In the year 1686 Poland, desirous of obtaining the assist- 1686. 
ance of Russia against the Crimean Tartars, agreed to a 
peace, by which it ceded again to the Russian crown Smol- 
ensk and the Oukraine. The Russian army, under Prince 
Galyczin, really marched against the Tartars, but the two 
campaigns remained without any result. Peter all this time 
apparently amused himself with boyish games, but in reality 
had been made keenly alive by Lefort to his disgraceful 
dependence on his sister, to the arrogance of the boyars 
and Strelitses, and to the inferior condition of the Russian 
empire and nation compared to that enjoyed by the peoples 
of Western Europe. In 1687 a son was born him by his 1687. 
first empress Eudoxia Lapukhin. He thereupon obtained 



288 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



a voice and seat in the Council of State, and before long made 
a determined snatch at the reins of government. 

Sophia, mad with jealousy, stirred up another revolt of 
the Strelitses, who nearly got possession of Peter's person 
at a small borough near Moscow. He managed, however, 
to reach the Trinity Convent, whence, backed by a corps 
of faithful Strelitses, he began to examine into affairs. 
Sophia, alarmed, resolved to fly to Poland, but was inter- 
cepted, and shut up in a convent, her favourite Galyczin 
exiled, and the other conspirators knouted to death, or sent 
to Siberia, after their tongues had been torn out. From this 
time Peter governed alone. He was filled with the most 
immoderate zeal for the civilization of his people, and desired 
to see it on the same level of culture which he had observed 
in Western Europe. To this end he required the sea-coast, 
and paid the greatest attention to ship-building, supported by 
the Dutch ships' carpenter Brand. As soon as he saw him- 
self in the possession of twelve men-of-war, he declared war 
1G95. against Turkey (1695), with a view to the conquest of Azov 
and to the subjection of the Crimean Tartars. The army 
was commanded by Gordon, the navy by Lefort (his two 
tutors) ; but the expedition remained without result, as the 
Turks had secured the services of a German engineer, who, 
in consequence of the ill-treatment received at the hands of 
the Czar, had deserted to the Turks. The fortress was not 
reduced till the next year, and the war, after the victory of 

1696. Perekop (17th August, 1696), but slowly continued. During 
this war the Strelitses had revolted again, but were dis- 
covered and all the conspirators executed. The brave de- 
fender of Azov was also put to death in a most cruel and 

1697. ignominious manner. In the year 1697, Peter, with a great 
suite, went abroad, and visited Prussia, Holland, England, 
and the rest of Germany. Suddenly absenting himself from 
his party, Peter went to Zaardam, where he worked for some 
time like a common ships' carpenter, and seemed to delight 
in the society of his fellow- workmen. At Vienna he was 
alarmed by the news of another conspiracy of the Strelitses, 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



2S9 



On his return to Moscow, however, he found that Gordon 
had already suppressed the disturbances, and Peter carne 
only in time for the punishment of the offenders. The 
executions lasted six weeks, Peter himself and his courtiers 
assisting in beheading the condemned. Two hundred of the 
Strelitses were hung up before the windows of the Princess 
Sophia, who then finally took the veil, under the. name of 
Marpha. The corps of the Strelitses was dissolved and 
converted into infantry. 

The Czar Peter L erected printing establishments, in- 
vented a new alphabet, had books written in the Russian 
language, and levied taxes according to the German system. 
He discouraged the wearing of beards, and tried to substitute 
foreign costumes for the national. The northern war, com- 
menced in 1700, was in reality decided on the 27th June, 1700. 
1 709, by the battle of Poltava, but was nevertheless protracted 1709. 
till 1721. Peter, in 1702, had the Dvina connected with the 172]. 
Don and the Volga, and thus with the Black and Caspian Seas; 
in 1703 he founded St. Petersburg, on a most unfavourable 1703. 
spot on the Neva, and made it the capital in 1714. 1714. 

The year 1703 brought the revolt of the Kazan Tartars, 1708. 
who, irritated by heavy oppressions, destroyed many Russian 
settlements, and sold the inhabitants to the Turks. This 
calamity came to a pacific end by the remission of the offen- 
sive measures and the promise of a general amnesty. In 
1704, Astrakhan rose in rebellion at the instigation of the 1704. 
exiled Strelitses. The Russian officials and other Europeans 
were murdered, and already the Uralski, Zaporoghian and 
Donski Cossacks were on the point of joining the rebels, 
when General Peter Shermatov succeeded in settling this 
dangerous affair, more by moderation and persuasion than by 
severe measures. Four years later, the Donski Cossacks 
were again in arms, because they would not surrender the 
Turkish deserters coming from Turkish soil, and killed Prince 
Dolgoruki. His brother, however, in several engagements 
defeated them : and, when they saw that they had lost 20,000 
men in battle and 10,000 who were driven over the Turkish 

u 



290 



THE LAND OE THE CZAR. 



frontier, they gave in, and killed their Hetman Bulavin. The 
Zaporoghian Cossacks, under Mazeppa, also rebelled in 1708, 
but received a dreadful punishment at Peter's hands. 
1710. In the year 1710, the Turks, at the instance of Charles XII. 
of Sweden, opened a new campaign against Eussia. Peter, 
who commanded his troops in person, came upon the Turkish 
army under the Grand- Yizier, Baltagi-Meheraet, numbering 
four times his own force. He was surrounded on the Pruth? 
and would have been made prisoner, if the dislike entertained 
by the Yizier towards the Swedish king had not made him 
all the more inclined to accept the Czarina's jewels for Peter's 
escape. 

These troubles over, Peter went again to Holland, France, 
1712. and Germany, where he, in 1712, married his son Alexej to 
the noble-minded Christina of Brims wick-Wolfenbutt el. 
The marriage turned out a very unhappy one, and Alexej 
from this time incurred his father's extreme displeasure, by 
the dissolute life he led with his boon companions, and in the 
society of common women, and particularly by the insulting 
neglect of his excellent consort. Peter, informed of his son's 
disgraceful conduct, summoned him to Copenhagen, where 
he happened to be at the time. But Alexej fled instead to 
Vienna, the Tyrol, and at last to Naples ; and only by the 
application of great pressure was induced to return to Moscow, 
where the senate unanimously condemned him to death, at 
the same time recommending him to the Czar's mercy. The 
announcement of this sentence threw him on his death-bed, 
1718. and after he had obtained his father's forgiveness, died 1718. 

About this time, the Kubanski Tartars destroyed a Russian 
army under Pekovitch. 

The northern war was at last concluded by the Peace of 
1721. Nystadt,on the 10th September, 1 721, which restored Livonia, 
Esthonia, Jnghermanland, Karelia, and part of Finland to 
Russia. In consequence of this glorious success, the senate 
entreated Peter to accept the title of Emrjeror and " the 
Great," to which request he graciously consented. 

As soon as peace had been concluded, Peter erected exten- 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



sive docks and warehouses in St. Petersburg, forced the rich 
nobility into the building of long streets of palaces by a 
given time, under a penalty of confiscation of property, and 
promenades to Siberia. In his usual forcible manner attract- 
ing inhabitants, and by the grant of particularly favourable 
conditions to maritime nations, he soon converted St. Peters- 
burg into a capital and port of the first rank. He began 
also the construction of a canal connecting the Ladoga lake 
with the Black Sea, which work was subsequently finished 
by Miinnich. 

In 1722, he forced again a war upon Persia, by which he 17 
wrested from that power Daghestan, Shirvan, Ghilan, 
Mazenderan, and Asterabad. He was, however, less success- 
ful in subduing the free nomadic tribes of Siberia, and in 
the cultivation of that country. In the year 1724, he had 17 
his wife Catharina crowned, with a view to securing the throne 
to her ; and founded in the same year the Academy of Sciences 
at St. Petersburg. While pondering over many other inno- 
vations, death surprised him, on the 8 th February, 1725. *7 



CHAPTER XXX. 
SEVENTH PERIOD (1725—1812). 

CATHARINA I. (1725-1727). 

Thanks to the influence of Menzhikov and several other 
grandees, including the Archbishop Theophanes, the widow 
of Peter the Great was proclaimed Empress under the title 
of Catharina I. 

This Empress gained the affection of the people by her 
mild firmness, and satisfied the Zaporoghian Cossacks by 
restoring to them those privileges which Czar Peter had 
deprived them of. More interested in the internal welfare of 
the empire than in foreign conquests, she opened the Academy 
of Sciences, which her husband had founded, and curtailed 
the power of the clergy in more than one respect. 

1727. In the year 1727, she concluded a commercial treaty with 
China, and formed an alliance of mutual defence and sup- 
port with Austria and Spain in 1726. 

Successful in a new war with Persia, she yet made a very 
moderate use of Matuvskin's victories, inasmuch as she 
returned all the conquered territory for an advantageous 
treaty of commerce with that power. Having entered into 
an alliance with Sweden against Denmark, she had made 
already great preparations for a war against the latter, when 
it concluded a defensive alliance with England, which stopped 
hostilities before they had properly begun. Catharina I. 

1727. died in 1727, and in conformity with her will was succeeded 
by Peter the Great's grandson and the son of Alexej, then 
eleven years old. 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



293 



PETER II. ALEXEJEYITCH (1727-1730). 

According to that will, a Council or Board of guardians 
was to have directed the affairs of the empire until Peter II. 
should have attained his seventeenth year; soon, however, 
Menzhikov exclusively usurped the reins of government, and 
affianced the Emperor to his daughter Maria, and his son 
with Peter's sister. Six months later only, the great man 
was thrown from his high station into the most abject misery, 
by Prince Alexander Dolgoruki, who sent him to Siberia, 
and affianced the emperor to his sister Catharina Dolgoruki. 
While in power, Menzhikov had been an intriguing, grasping, 
greedy, and cruel tyrant ; but he supported his misfortune 
with great dignity. Peter II. was a peace-loving prince, 
and little troubled his head about foreign policy. He recalled 
his grandmother Eudoxia from her convent, removed the 
court to Moscow, and left the affairs of the government in 
the minister Ostermann's hands. He died unexpectedly of 
small-pox, on the 19th January, 1730. Dolgoruki now 1730. 
endeavoured to have his sister, the affianced bride of the late 
Czar, made Empress, but without success ; for 

anna ivanovna (1730-1740), 

daughter of Ivan, Peter's half-brother, and widow of the 
Duke of Courland, obtained the crown. Before she was 
allowed to ascend the throne, she was obliged to sign an 
Act, by which she admitted the right of the senate to decide 
on peace or war, and promised never to confiscate any estates, 
and above all to send away her favourite Biron, or Biren, 
without a clay's delay. 

Anna agreed to every condition, but a few days after, she 
declared herself imposed upon, her promises extracted by 
deception and force, and therefore not binding, and at once 
handed the reins of government to Biron, The latter availed 
himself of his power to send Prince Dolgoruki together with 
20,000 other Eussians to Siberia, to banish the Galyczins,, 



29* 



THE LAXD OF THE CZAR. 



and send others, obnoxious to himself, to the scaffold. It 
was he, who henceforth governed in the name of the Empress. 

As it did not suit her at that time to go to war with Persia, 
Anna ceded all former conquests south of the River Kour to 
that power, but obtained important concessious regarding 
the commercial relations of the two countries, as well as the 
advantage of an alliance against Turkey. 

About this time began the first differences respecting the 
succession to the Polish throne. Eussia supported Augustus 
III. by an army, which conquered Dantzig, whither the ex- 
King, Stanislaus Lesczinski (who was backed by France), 
had fled. August III. ascended the throne, and Russia's 
influence in Poland was henceforth permanently secured. 

A year later, Anna declared war against Turkey, Austria 
having claimed her assistance, according to the Treaty of 
Alliance existing between the two powers. An army under 
Miinnich devastated the Crimea, and took Azov, but was 

1737. compelled to retreat ; until a second expedition(l?37)brought 
Otchakov, Khotin, and the whole of Moldavia into the power 

1739. of the Russians. In the year 1739 the war broke out again, 
until after the victories of Stavudchin (or Stavtchany) and 
Khotin, peace was at last concluded, according to v.hich 
Russia kept Azov, but had to raze the fortifications, and 
abstain from the navigation of the Black Sea. All these 
advantages were, however, soon lost, in consequence of the 
unfortunate campaign of the Austrians, and the Peace of 
Belgrade ; but the influence of Russia and respect of its 
cabinet had considerably gained. 

3 740 Anna Ivanovna died on the 28th October, 1740, and was 
succeeded by the son of her niece, Anna of Meklenburg, 
whom she had adopted already in 1731, and married to the 
Duke Ulrich of Brunswick-Liineburg. Biron, already in 

1737. 1737, had been made Duke of Meklenburg, and was now 
appointed regent ; but rendered himself so obnoxious, that 
Generals Miinnich and Manstein, on the 7th November, 1740, 
arrested and locked him up in Schliisselburg. The Duchess 
Anna, now declared regent, lived on very bad terms with her 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



295 



husband, and on several occasions seriously offended Miinnich 
and Osterrnann. Intriguing for the marriage of Elizabeth, 
daughter of Peter the Great by Catharina, to Prince Ludwig 
of Brunswick, against the princess' inclination, she brought 
upon herself and Ivan a conspiracy, which was principally 
the work of the French ambassador. Bribed by French 
money, the Preobrazhenski regiment surprised the regent, 
her spouse, and Ivan (6th December, 1741), and carried them 
off to Senilis selburg. Ivan, liberated by a monk, was carried 
as far as Smolensk, where, however, he was caught again, 
and brought back ; until after a long imprisonment in the 
reign of Catharina II. , on the occasion of an attempt on the 
part of Lieutenant Mislovitch to set him free (1763), he was 1763 - 
killed by order of the commanding governor, who had his 
instructions to that effect. 

ELIZABETH PETROVNA (1741 1762) 

was now proclaimed Empress, and commenced her reign by 
banishing all the high standing members of the last Govern- 
ments (amongst whom Miinnich and Osterrnann) to Siberia. 
She sent Anna and her husband to Germany, but had them 
soon arrested again, and transported to an island in the 
White Sea. 

The intrigues of the French ambassador, who wished to 
prevent the Russian Government from co-operating with 
Maria Theresia, as by treaty they were bound, had embroiled 
Anna into a war with Sweden (1744), which Elizabeth 
carried on with much energy. The Russian army, under 
the command of General Lascy, penetrated into Finland, 
where they captured on the 3rd September, 1741, General 
TVrangel with the greater part of his army, near Wilmans- 
strancl, and France not succeeding in bringing about a 
reconciliation between the two powers, Lascy took the whole 
of Finland, until, on the 7th August, 1743, the peace of 1743. 
Abo put an end to hostilities. Sweden was obliged to cede 
Finland as far as the Kymene River. In the same year 



296 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 

Elizabeth declared the Duke Charles Peter Ulrich, of Hol- 
stein-Gottorp, son of her sister Anna and of the Duke 
Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, her successor, in 
consideration of which the latter transferred his claim to the 
Swedish crown to his uncle, Adolph Frederick, thereby 
securing the influence of Russia in that direction also. 

A conspiracy got up at this time by the relatives and 
friends of the exiled Golovkins, Lovendolcls, &c, was dis- 

1744. covered and punished with cruel severity. In 1744 Elizabeth 
entered into an alliance offensive and defensive with Austria, 
in revenge for some sarcastic remarks on the part of Frederick 
the Great of Prussia, who used to speak of her as the 

1747 " Catin du Nord." In ] 747 she sent an army against 
Prussia, which brought about the peace of Aix-la-Ckapelle. 
During the same year she married her successor to the 
Princess Frederika of Anhalt-Zerbst, who, on entering the 
Russian church, took the name of Catharina Alexeyevna. 
Constantly irritated against Prussia by Austria, she, in 

1757. 1757, sent a second army to Germany. On the 5th January, 

1762. 1762, she died without seeing the darling wish of her heart 
(Prussia's annihilation) fulfilled. 

peter the third (5th January to 14th July, 1762), 

her nephew and successor, with much energy and circum- 
spection tried to strengthen his government and raise the 
civilization of his country to the same level as that of the 
other European states. An enthusiastic admirer of Fre- 
derick the Great, he concluded peace with the latter, and 
even formed an alliance with him. He consequently sent 
an army against Denmark, which had encroached upon the 
country of his family. 

He actively busied himself with the reform of all the 
government institutions of the empire, but offended thereby 
the interests of all classes. The army, notwithstanding 
the abolition of corporeal punishment, were dissatisfied 
about the introduction* of Prussian tactics and discipline, 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA, 297 

and jealous of the newly-formed Holstein body-guard. He 
deprived the clergy of a part of their estates and revenues, 
interdicted the wearing of beards by secular priests, checked 
the pretensions of the nobility, whom Elizabeth had always 
encouraged, and did away with many abuses, especially with 
those attending the appointments to government offices. 
Owing to his attachment to the Countess Voronzov he 
quarrelled with his wife, who indemnified herself by her 
intrigues with Poniatovski, Soltikov, the OrlofTs, and others. 
As their differences became more frequent and violent every 
day, Peter resolved on a divorce and the imprisonment of 
his wife in a convent. Catharina, informed of his intentions, 
at once conspired with her favourites, the OrlofTs, Daskkovs, 
Count Panin, &c, with a view to her husband's deposition 
and perhaps death. Although the conspiracy was betrayed, 
she went on the 29th June, 1762, to the barracks of the 
guards at St. Petersburg, and informing them of the Czar's 
death, she got the men to swear to her the oath of fidelity. 
Senator Teplov, who in the Kazanski Church was to have 
proclaimed the son of Catharina and Peter, had another 
proclamation thrust into his hands by Count OrlofT, which 
declared Catharina Empress ; and the nobility and army, 
dissatisfied with Peter, hailed her as such. The latter, 
apprized of the turn his affairs were taking, fled to Cronstadt, 
but found that his adversaries had already locked its gates 
against him. He then demanded from the new sovereign 
the permission to go with the Countess Voronzov to Holstein, 
but he was betrayed and brought to Oraminburg and there 
forced to abdicate. Owing, however, to some voices growing 
loud in his favour he was vilely murdered in prison by the 
brothers OrlofT and a hired assassin. They tried first to 
poison him, but Peter, detecting the poison, refused to 
drink of the glass. The murderers then called to their aid 
Boriatinski, who commanded the place, and the unhanpy 
Czar was strangled. This happened on the J 4th July, 
1762. l 



293 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



CATHARINA II. , ALEX£yEYXA (1762—1796), 

who had not scrupled to sacrifice her husband to her ambi- 
tion, knew also how to get rid of other possible pretenders 
to the crown. Ivan was assassinated in his wretched prison 
1763. in 1763, and a daughter of Elizabeth, and the master of the 
Imperial Hunt, BasoumoTski (secretly married to the latter), 
who had been quietly living at Pisa, was carried off, and 
disappeared in Cronstadt. She broke the alliance with 
Prussia, but maintained peace, desirous of relieving the 
country of the burden of war. Catharina henceforth applied 
herself with great energy and ability to the affairs of the 
empire, attracted German colonists to the land, founded 
villages and granaries, and paid great attention to agricul- 
ture. More than 80,000 families of sober and hardworking- 
farmers were thus introduced into the desert steppes of the 
Volga and Sarpa. She founded about 200 towns and nu- 
merous schools and educational establishments for the higher 
as well as the lower classes. In 1764 a school was attached 
to the Academy of Arts, and several clerical seminaries, as 
well as an academy for the perfection of the Eussian lan- 
guage, were established during her reign. 

Desirous of improving the system of legislation of the 
country, Catharina convoked (1766) an assembly of deputies 
from all the nations composing the vast empire of Russia 
to Moscow, with a view to arriving at the compilation of a 
code of laws, which would meet the exigencies of all, but 
did not succeed on account of the diversity of nationalities 
and degrees of civilization. She had several canals opened, 
and decreed in 1785 new maritime laws and shipping regu- 
lations. She intended also the abolition of serfdom, but the 
resistance of the landed proprietors frustrated her design. 
Mining operations were carried on with so much energy 
during her reign, that they increased the revenues of the 
state by seven to nine millions of pounds sterling. The 
navy was raised to 45 vessels of the line, and the army to 
450,000 men. She forced the aristocracy of Courland to 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



299 



depose their Duke of Saxony, whom Poland had appointed, 
and to put in his place Biren, who had regained his liberty. 
On the death of Augustus III. of Poland she used her influ- 
ence to get her old favourite, Stanislaus Poniatovski ap- 
pointed King (in 1764). On the 30th October, 1768, the 1764. 
Porte, at the instigation of Polish agitators, declared war 
against Russia, availing themselves of the excuse offered 
by the demolition of the Turkish town Balla. But the 
Turkish arms proved unlucky, as their army was beaten on 
the 17th September, 1769, by Prince Galyczin at Khotiu, 1769. 
who, moreover, occupied the greater part of Yallachia. 
While Orloff with his fleet had the command of the 
Bosphorus, General Romanzov on land threw the Turks 
back as far as Isakin. General Medom stirred up the 
Caucasian Mountaineers, and Ali Bey, the Princes of Karthli 
and Kakheti, and the Mainoots of the Morea. The naval vic- 
tories of Orloff completed the critical position of the Turks. 
The Russian fleet, which had sailed from the Baltic into 
Greek waters, obtained on the 5th of July, 1770, a victory 1770. 
near Skio, burnt the remnant of the Turkish fleet at Tchesme, 
and destroyed another squadron (a portion of the former) at 
Andros on the 17th July. Although Romanzov's army 
had been decimated by hunger and plague in Moldavia, 
he gained on the 18th July a victory at Karga, and on the 
1st of August another near the lake of Kagul. The plague 
communicated itself to the whole of Turkey, Podolia, Vol- 
hynia, and Moscow, which city had not less than 100,000 
dead. The Grand- Vizier Halil-Pasha having meanwhile 
fled across the Danube, Panin had taken Bender and over- 
run Bessarabia. Dolgorouki, having relieved Panin, in 
1771 occupied the Crimea and appointed a new Khan, 1771 
Sahib Ghirai, who acknowledged the Russian supremacy, 
of which facts the conquest of Azov and the establishment 
of a Black Sea fleet was the immediate consequence. The 
Russian army, after having sustained a defeat at Giur- 
gevo, was victorious again on the 30th October, 1771, at 
Boukharest, while General Weisniann on the 25th had sur- 



300 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



prised the Turkish camp at Babaclagh. The Prince of Georgia 
and Ali Bey rose again, and the downfall of the Porte 
seemed already inevitable, when Austria entered into an 
alliance with Turkey, and concentrated considerable forces 
on the confines of Moldavia. Prussia now brought about an 
armistice, during which the partition of Poland took place, 
an event which rendered the three powers highly satis- 
fied with each other. Russia's share consisted in half of 
Polotsk and part of Minsk, Vitebsk, and Mohilev, altogether 
about 3000 square miles, with two millions of inhabitants. 

1773, In the year 1773, the Turkish war was opened again, but 
did not at first prove fortunate for the Russian arms. On 
the 21st June, 1773, the Russians were defeated and driven 
across the Danube by Hassan Pasha, so that Romanzov, after 
the loss of another battle, had to relinquish the idea of con- 
quering Silistria. The death of Mustapha III. (11th January, 

1774. 1774), and the revolt of the Yanitshars, gave, however, new 
courage to Romanzov. He at once re-crossed the Danube, 
surrounded Silistria and Rustchuk, and defeated the Grand- 
Vizier Mehemed near Badzarclshik. The vizier lost his 
baggage, was shut up in Bulgaria, and forced on the 21st 
July, 1774, to sign the treaty of peace of Kutchuk-Kainardshi, 
by which the Porte ceded to the Russians the fortresses of 
Yanikale, Kertch, Kinburn, and the territories between the 
Boug and Dnjepr, gave up all opposition to the Russian 
navigation of the Black Sea and Dardanelles, acknowledged 
the independence of the Crimea, and engaged to pay an 
indemnity of 5,000,000 dollars. 

3 775. In the year 1775, a common Cossack of the Ural or Yaik 
river, Pougatshev, representing himself to be the murdered 
Czar, Peter III., caused a dangerous rebellion, which extended 
over the governments of Orenburg and Kazan, and main- 
tained himself against the Russian generals, Galyczin and 
Souvarov. On the march upon Moscow, however, he was 
met and defeated by Colonel Michelsen, and having been 
given up to the Russians by his own officers, was executed at 
Moscow. 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



301 



The Russian policy from this time increased daily in im- 
portance. The already much-clipped Poland was kept in 
a state of dependence by the establishment of the continuous 
Council, by the guarantee of the Electorate and the 
" Liberum veto." Together with Frederick the Great, the 
Russian government encouraged the party strife in Sweden, 
and thus kept that country in a state of weakness and con- 
fusion. 

In 1778, the independent Crimea was occupied without 1778. 
even a remonstrance on the part of the enfeebled Turks, and 
the Bavarian war of succession was stopped by the mere 
threat of an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia. 

The armed neutrality, proposed by Palen, and established 
in 1780, was the work of Russia. 1780. 

Catharina upheld the principle, that the commerce with 
belligerent powers should be permitted to all vessels sailing 
under a neutral flag, provided they strictly abstained from 
trading in military stores. This system was adopted by 
Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Prussia, and even by the powers 
actually at war with England, such as France, Spain, and 
Holland. 

Catharina's favourite scheme was the destruction of the 
Turkish and the re- establishment of the Greek Empire, 
which she had destined for her second grandson Constantine, 
who, to that end, received a Greek education. Austria 
offered a helping hand towards the execution of this scheme. 
Jealous of the Russo-Prussian alliance, Joseph II. proposed 
an interview at Mohilev, and a plan concerning the above 
scheme was here agreed upon ; and in 1 783 was concluded 
that alliance between Austria and Russia, which Frederick II. 
had in vain endeavoured to prevent. Catharina pressed 
extravagant demands on Turkey, and induced the Crimean 
Khan, Sahib Ghiral, to cede his country to Russia. Both 
powers prepared for war, which, however, owing to French 
intercession, was prevented. On the 8th January, 1784, 
they concluded a new peace, according to which the Crimea, 
the Island of Taman, and the steppes on the Kuban were 



302 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



ceded to Russia, who formed of these territories the govern- 
ment of Tavrida. But Catharina had by no means relin- 
quished her favourite scheme, and tried to rouse the Porte 
again by her reception of Turkish refugees. In 1787 she 
had another interview with Joseph II. at Kherson. Her 
journey thither was one of triumph. On this occasion a 
second alliance was formed between Austria and Russia, but 
the Porte took the initiative and declared war against Russia 
on the 24th August, 1787. The Austrian declaration of war 
did not actually get launched before the month of February,, 
1788. Romanzov and Repnin advanced into Moldavia, but 
neither there nor in the Crimea and the Kuban territory did 
the Russians obtain any decisive results. At last, however, 
Potemkin appeared on the scene as commander-in-chief, and 
took Otckakov (17th December). The Russian fleet was 
defeated at Sevastopol. After Gallatz had been taken on 

1789. the 1st May, 1789, Souvarov gained a victory on the 31st 
July at Fokshani; and, in conjunction with the Prince of 
Coburg, another near Martinezhti. Soon after fell Khotin, 
Akkerman (13th October), Bender (15th November), Kilia- 

1790. nova (15th October, 1790), and, on the 22nd December, 
Souvarov took Jsmail after an heroic defence and frightful 
slaughter. Although the Austrians could show but small 
results of their own operations under Loudon, the downfall 
of the Porte seemed nevertheless to be close at hand, but 
was prevented by the jealous interference of the other Euro- 
pean powers. By the treaty of peace at Reichenbach in 1790, 
Austria did not agree to any loss of territory on the part of 
Turkey ; Prussia entered into an alliance with Turkey, while 
Sweden had declared war against Russia already in 1788. 

1789. Gustavus III., in 1789, marched into Russian Finland, but 
was repulsed on the 24th August near Hogsars. More for- 
tunate at sea, he, after several losses near Reval, on the 15th 
May, gained the celebrated battle of Frederickskain. Shut 
up by the Prince of Nassau in Vyborg Sound, he, on the x 3rd 
July, near Shentasimdj broke through the Russian fleet and 
entirely destroyed it. St. Petersburg was in danger, and the 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



303 



Empress prepared for flight ; but Sweden's victories on the 
sea were not supported by the army, in which dangerous 
mutinies had broken out. Gustavus III., therefore, on the 
16th August, concluded the peace of Verela, while the peace 
of Yassi, on the 9th January, 1792, made an end of the 1792. 
Turkish war. Russia kept the Crimea, Otchakov, and the 
territory between the Dnjepr and Dnjestr. The independence 
of the Czar Heraklius of Tiflis or Georgia was formally con- 
firmed on this occasion. 

Catharina now had again time to direct her attention to 
Poland. That unfortunate country, on the 1st May, 1791, 1791. 
had decided on a constitution ; but Russia found an excuse 
for interfering in the celebrated Targovits Confederation, 
which had been dictated by Catharina herself. This led to 
a new partition of Poland by the convention of Grodno, 
resulting for Russia in the acquisition of the greater part of 
Lithuania, Little Poland, and the Oukraine, a territory com- 
prising 4553 square miles. Two years later, however, on 
the 26th January, 1797, the last remnant of the unhappy 1797. 
country was divided between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
Russia's share consisted of the remainder of Lithuania and 
Samoghitia, all Volhynia, and some parts of Brzesk and 
Khelm. In Courland, the antagonism between aristocracy 
and " bourgeoisie," by secret fanning, was driven to so 
furious a height, that the former in 1795 appealed to Russia, 1795. 
and the childless duke, Peter of Courland, a son of Biren, 
for a consideration, ceded his rights to Catharina. Towards 
France she observed a strict neutrality during the revolution ; 
and in 1787 only took notice of the altered form of govern- 
ment by annulling the treaty of commerce existing between 
the two countries. A short time before her death she 
allowed herself to get entangled in a war with Persia on pre- 
tence of maintaining the rights of Prince Heraklius of 
Georgia. The conquests of this reign increased the Russian 
dominions by 11,000 square miles, but at the expense of 
1,000,000 men and a most embarrassed exchequer. In the 
midst of new projects, death surprised her on the 17th 1796. 
November, 1796. 



304 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



PAUL I.j PETROVITCH (1796 — 1801), 

her successor and only son, took a still more active interest 
in the affairs of the other European States than Catharina 
had done, but in consequence of the system of subjection and 
dependence, which had been imposed upon him by his mother, 
who never had shown any affection for him, his character had 
been rendered wayward, capricious, and harsh. One of the 
first acts of his government was the liberation of the Polish 
captives, amongst whom was Kosziusko, and an amnesty to 
many of the Siberian exiles. Averse to war, he dissolved the 
treaty of subsidies with England, and stopped the enlisting 
of recruits. All the civil government offices were subjected 
to a most severe control, many of the officials dismissed and 
others appointed in their places; the Guards lost their 
privileges, the sons of the high nobility the right of occupying 
the places of officers before they had gained manhood, Prus- 
sian uniforms were introduced, and the military service carried 
on according to the Prussian system. The general dissatis- 
faction created by his innovations rendered him distrustful ; 
a secret police was established, and the press strictly con- 
trolled. To prevent the influx of revolutionary ideas no 
Eussian subject was allowed to leave the country. In the 

1797. year 1797 Paul decreed a law of succession, establishing the 
right of primogeniture, in the male line, and admitting the 
female line only in the case of the dying out of the former. 
He was extremely shocked by all he heard of the French 
Revolution, strictly forbade everything coming from France, 

1798. and in 1798, having formed an alliance with the Powers 
hostile to that country, he declared war to the latter. On 
the 20th Sept., his fleet, conjointly with the Turkish, opened 
hostilities, and the year after he sent Souvarov to Italy with 
an army of 80,000 men. Jealous of England, which had kept 
the fleet taken from the Dutch in the Texel entirely for its 
own share, as well as of Austria, whom he suspected of 
aggressive intentions regarding Savoy and the Papal States, 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



305 



he soon broke away again from the alliance. To oblige Bona- 
parte, who distinguished him by marked courtesy, he expelled 
the French emigrants, amongst whom was also Louis XV III. , 
from his dominions, prohibited the exportation of ship-build- 
ing material to England, recalled his ambassador from Vienna, 
and removed the armed neutrality against England, after he 
had seized upon all English vessels then lying at the Russian 
ports. In the Mediterranean alone hostilities were still con- 
tinned. Russia occupied the Republic of the Seven Islands, 
and her importance considerably rose in the eyes of the world. 
In the meantime Paul's harsh manner, and the unbending- 
severity with which he treated the highest officers of the 
State, had provoked a formidable conspiracy. His suspicions 
of the same soon becoming evident, the imprisonment of his 
Empress Maria and of the Grand Duke Alexander was al- 
ready generally expected, when the mine was suddenly fired in 
the night from the 23rd to the 24th March, 1801. He was 
surprised in the Mikhailov Palace at St. Petersburg by a 
party of conspirators', who, after a stout resistance on his 
part, put him to death. He was succeeded by his eldest son 



ALEXANDER I., PAVLOVITCH (1801 — 1825). 

In conjunction with the Scandinavian States, Paul had re- 
vived the system of an armed neutrality. This demonstra- 
tion became fatal to Denmark, which now came in for all the 
angry resentment of England, and would probably have pro- 
duced a rupture with that power, if the sudden death of Paul 
and the ascension to the throne of Alexander I. had not 
brought about a complete revolution of political conditions. 
The first step of the latter was more than conciliatory to 
Great Britain ; but sincerely bent on the pacification of 
Europe, he endeavoured also to improve his relations with 
France. At the same time his wise ambition energetically 
laboured at the internal development of his people and 
country. However, Napoleon's ambition pointed in another 
direction, and Alexander came to the conclusion, that warlike 



306 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



demonstrations alone would effect the pacification of the world. 

1805. He accordingly, in the year 1805, formed an alliance with 

1807. Austria, and in 1807 with Prussia, but the fortune of 
war during the next two campaigns had declared against the 
allied armies, so that it was Napoleon who dictated the condi- 
tions of the Peace of Tilsit. Russia obtained Bialystock, but 
Alexander had to recall his troops from Cattaro and Corfu, 
give up all connection with England, and declare war against 
Sweden, which alone staunchly stuck to the British alliance. 
The peace of Fredericksham, which terminated the Swedish 

1809. war in 1809, got Russia the whole of Finland, with the Aland 
Islands. Although Napoleon's ally, Alexander yet took but 
a feeble part in the Austro-French war of the same year, 
but he operated all the more energetically against Turkey 
and Persia. The battle of Wagram (1809) resulting in the 
Peace of Vienna, Russia obtained part of Galizia (district of 
Tarnopol), which she, however, after the war, restored to 
Austria. The good understanding between the St. Petersburg 
and Paris cabinets, however, did not last long. The spoliation 
of the Duke of Oldenburg, a relative of Alexander, caused a 
rupture, which resulted in the famous campaign of 1812. 

An army of 560,000 men, composed of French and auxiliary 
troops, and supported by the corps of reserve, which Austria 
and Prussia, in their state of abasement, were obliged to dis- 
pose on their frontiers, commanded by Napoleon in person, 

1812. crossed the river Njemen on the 24th June, 1812, and took 
Smolensk, on the 18th August. Alarmed by the imminent 
danger Alexander had called back from the Turkish frontier 
the army of General Koutouzov, whom he appointed com- 
mander-in-chief. Ably effecting a junction of the corps of 
Generals Barclay de Tolly and Bagrathion with his own, he 
hastily threw up entrenchments near the Moskva, and awaited 
the approach of Napoleon. A furious battle ensued on the 
7th September, which is known under the name of the 
Moskva, or Borodino, and which cost 35,000 lives. The 
road to Moscow, however, was now open to the French, 
and Napoleon held his entry into the Kreml on the 15th 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA, 



307 



September. But his fortune and genius seemed to forsake 
him from that day. He had been surprised at the dead 
silence that pervaded the deserted city, but he soon was 
enlightened on the cause by a general conflagration flaming 
up in every direction, which, in a few days, reduced the city 
to a heap of ashes. It was a grand and unexampled sacrifice 
that the inhabitants of Moscow had thus brought to their 
country, and crowned with complete success. Napoleon seemed 
to be almost stupified at the unexpected turn his affairs had 
taken, and he lost a whole precious month in negotiations of 
peace. At last, on the 18 th October, he evacuated the yet 
smoky ruins of Moscow. Cold and hunger, more even than 
the enemy, who incessantly harassed him in the rear, brought 
about the utter destruction of his gallant army, which, after 
the disastrous passage of the Beresina (25th November), 
became a mere chaotic wreck, amounting to hardly 
90,000 men. 

In reward for the efforts Russia had made for the delivery 
of Europe, she received the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which 
was converted into a constitutional kingdom. Russia retained 
all her formerly conquered territories, and acquired from this 
time a very marked preponderance in Europe. From this 
moment the consolidation of the general peace became the 
object of Alexander, and inspired him above all with the idea 
of the Holy Alliance, of which he remained the soul as long 
as he lived. 

Intimidated by the successes of the Russian arms, the Porte, 
by the Treaty of Boukharest (in 1812) had ceded to Russia 
the whole of Bessarabia, and a part of Moldavia. The exact 
demarkation of the thus acquired territory was ultimately 
defined in 1817, but the Divan subsequently raised difficulties 
about the fulfilment of the conditions referring to the two 
principalities of Yallachia and Moldavia, which the Czar had 
taken under his protection. 

The Greeks, who had risen against. Mussulman oppression 
since 1821, and the Moldavian agitators had founded their 
success on the cabinet of St. Petersburg, and were urgently 

x 2 



308 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



soliciting its powerful support. The French revolution, and 
its consequences, had, however, instilled into the mind of 
the otherwise so generous and liberally-minded Alexander an 
almost nervous horror of anything like revolutionary enter- 
prises ; and, in despite of his own grievances even, he refused 
to break entirely with the Ottoman Porte by an active inter- 
vention in favour of his co-religionaries, the Greeks. The 
same feeling made him constantly exercise Kussia's influence 
in opposition to the desires of liberty, which animated the 
populations at the time of the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Troppau, Laibach, and Verona. He died of typhus at Tagan- 
1825. rog on the 1st December, 1825. 

His memory will be for ever revered, not only in Russia, 
but by the whole world. His genuine piety, though fre- 
quently abused by hypocritical courtiers, exercised neverthe- 
less the most beneficial influence in many ways, and led to 
a thorough reform of the Russian Church. How sincerely 
Alexander respected a pious and religious spirit has been 
proved by his friendship for Madame Yon Kriidener and other 
kindred spirits. Innumerable are the proofs of his personal 
courage, the goodness of his heart, his sense of justice and 
humanity. For the saving of a poor peasant (who had fallen 
into the Vilna) at the risk of his own life, the London Humane 
Society awarded Alexander their gold medal, an honour which 
lie prized higher than all the glittering stars that covered his 
breast. The power of Russia under Alexander rose to a 
height which Peter the Great could not have foreseen. The 
acquisition of Grouzia, Bialystock, Finland, the kingdom of 
Poland, Shirvan, and Bessarabia secured the frontiers, and 
increased the number of its subjects of the empire by 
10,000,000 of souls. 

But far more important is the enhancement of the moral 
power, and the steering of the old cabinet policy of Russia 
into the stream of ideas, which enabled that power hence- 
forth to follow up schemes, which at another time would 
have armed all the world against her. Alexander's person- 
ality ennobled, as it were, the Russian policy, for nobody 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



309 



ever suspected bis endeavours of being dictated by any but 
the most noble and bumane motives. He was succeeded 
by bis tbird brother, Nicholas, tbe second, tbe Grand-Duke 
Constantine having formally declined the assumption of the 
imperial dignity. 

NICHOLAS I., PAVLOVITCH (1825-1855). 

Although his elder brother, the Grand-Duke Constantine, 
had formally declined the throne, already during Alexander's 
time, Nicholas for a long time refused to accept of the Crown 
in the fear of weakening the law of succession by so doing, 
and only after his brother had solemnly repeated his former 
declaration, did he consent to the signing of the Act of 
Ascension to the Throne, which took place on the 24th 
December, 1825. The' long campaigns in Germany and 1825. 
France had somewhat demoralized the Eussian army, and 
infused a revolutionary spirit into its ranks, which gave 
rise to a conspiracy, the object of which was the substitu- 
tion of a republican form of government in lieu of the 
former system of absolutism. 

The middle and lower classes, owing to their ignorance of 
foreign affairs and low degree of civilization, were absolute 
strangers to these new ideas, and only in the bosom of the 
aristocracy and in the corps of officers glowed the fire of 
revolution. Since Boris Godounov their minds had become 
familiarized with the idea of tyrannicide, and in this instance 
they intended nothing less than to open the projected move- 
ment with the assassination of the Imperial family. The 
standard of revolution was to have been raised in May, 
but Alexander's death altered the original plan of action. 
As they doubted the capability of the people being inspired 
sufficiently for their purpose by republican ideas, they 
made the holding back of the Grand-Duke Constantine 
the ostensible motive of rebellion, declaring that he had 
declined the throne only in consequence of violent pressure 
having been brought to bear on him by Nicholas. Knowing 



310 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



their plot betrayed, some regiments of the Guards already 
on the 26th December, 1825, under Colonel Pestel, stood up 
in arms against Nicholas. They rapidly gained strength, but 
just as promptly were they encountered by the new Czar, who, 
when he found that kind persuasion was of no avail, crushed 
the revolt with an energy that has not been forgotten to this 
day. It must be said that the Czar Nicholas felt the greatest 
repugnance to such a beginning of his reign, and it was only 
after the governor of St. Petersburg, Miloradovitch, together 
with four or five officers of his staff, whom the Czar had 
sent to remonstrate with the rebellious guards, had been 
greeted by the cries for a republic and shot down, that he 
gave the signal for the attack. Another attempt, which was 
made at Kiev by Lieutenant- Colonel Mouraviev-Apostol 
with part of the Tchernigov regiment, was also suppressed at 
once. Mouraviev, Pestel, and Kakhovski, with two others, 
who had shot the governor, were hung at St. Petersburg, 
and fifty-two more of the officers were at once sent off to 
the Siberian diggings. Prince Troubetskoi having implored 
the Emperor's pardon, received the following answer : — 
" Sit down and write to the Princess, your wife, as I dictate : 
( I am well, and have saved my life.' " But the prince was 
sent to Siberia, accompanied by his noble-minded wife. The 
Ladies Sergius Volkonski, Naryzhkin, Alexandrina and 
Nikita Mouraviev, heroically shared the exile of their hus- 
bands. It must, however, be borne in mind that the Siberian 
exile in the case of political criminals, is by no means so 
dreadful as many authors (particularly Polish) have endeav- 
oured to represent it. The writer of this historical sketch 
has seen several Polish exiles, who in consequence of an 
amnesty extended to them by the Emperor Nicholas, had 
returned to Russia and been presented with magnificent 
estates in the government of Kherson, who spoke with tears 
of regret of the happy, patriarchal time spent in the south of 
Siberia. One of them, a gentleman of seventy, had actually 
petitioned the Czar for the permission to return to that little- 
understood land of banishment, where he had passed thirty 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



311 



of the most happy years of his life, and who considered him- 
self much aggrieved at the Emperor's refusal. 

The suppression of this revolt, the unhappy overture to his 
reign, seems to have made a lasting impression on the Em- 
peror's mind. The trial of the conspirators had brought to 
light such monstrous abuses of confidence and dishonest 
practices, that the energy with which the Czar Nicholas 
applied himself to the purification of the air in all govern- 
mental departments, exceeded by no means the limits of 
necessity. His punishment was unrelenting and severe, and 
some of the unrighteous cashiers anticipated it by their own 
hands. 

Catharina had left the country burdened with a heavy 
debt, which the French war had not improved, and Nicholas 
saw himself compelled to economise his resources by cur- 
tailing the emoluments of the numerous officials. Many of 
the officers of the State, too honourable to increase their 
income by oppression and dishonest acts, slowly died of gen- 
teel starvation, while others, less scrupulous, deemed them- 
selves justified in reaping where they had not sown. On the 
3rd September, 1826, Nicholas and his Empress Alexandra 1826. 
were crowned at Moscow. The latter was a sister of the pre- 
sent Emperor William of Germany, and a princess of the 
most noble and amiable qualities. Her influence on her 
stern husband, who was devotedly attached to her, was of 
the most beneficial kind. 

Nicholas I. had hardly settled down at the head of the 
empire, when difficulties arose with Persia respecting the 
demarcation of the line of frontier, as laid down by the Tiflis 
treaty of peace. 

Although Prince Murzikov had been sent to Teheran for the 
purpose of finally arranging this matter, and while still at 
that city, Abbas Mirza, the son of the Shah, apprised of the 
revolt of St. Petersburg and Kiev, thought this a good oppor- 
tunity for a renewal of hostilities. He accordingly crossed 
the frontier at the head of an army of 30,000 men, and stir- 
ring up by the way the Mohamedan subjects of the Russian 



312 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



1826. Crown, got as far as Elizabethpol, where, on the 14th Sep- 
tember, he was defeated by Yermalov, and forced to evacuate 
that town. In consequence of a second defeat on the 25th 
September, he retreated to the southern bank of the Araxes. 
Paskjevitck, successor of Yermalov, carried the war on to 
the Persian soil, and began by storming the fortified con- 
vent of Etchmadsin. After many indecisive engagements, 
General Pankratiev succeeded in seducing several of the allies 
of Persia from their allegiance, owing to which, on the 
6th July, the Persians lost the battle of jSTakhitshevan, on 
the 7th the fortress of Abbas Adad, and soon after the 
battle of Abaran. The Russian army now occupied the 
province of Erivan. The fortresses of Sardar Abad and of 
Erivan surrendered on the 8th October. After so many 
reverses and the loss of Kurtash and Tauris, which fell 
without offering any resistance, Abbas Mirza sued for peace, 
which was also concluded on the 2nd November, and in 
virtue whereof Erivan and Nakhitchevan became Russian 
provinces. The Persians, moreover, agreed to pay an indem- 
nity of 80 millions of roubles, which not punctually forth - 

1828. coming had to be enforced in 1828 by the occupation of 
Urbia and Arbebil, to get rid of which the Shah, in addition, 
ceded the saline springs of Kulpi. 

In 1826 clouds of war arose from the Turkish region, but 
were dispelled by the treaty of the 6th October, which granted 
all the demands of Russia, 

At the Congress of London in 1825, Russia advocated the 
cause of the Greeks, but England, though deeply sympa- 
thizing with that unhappy nation, objected to any enfeeblement 
of Turkey. Greece was, however, declared an independent 
state. The united squadrons of England, Russia, and France, 

1827. on the 20th October, 1827, defeated the Turkish fleet at 
Navarino, while the Russian army (having invaded Mol- 
davia and Yallachia) took Braila and Yarna. 

1829. Next year General Count Diebitsh Zabalkansky succeeded 
in taking Shumla, and gaining the victory of Madara. He 
then crossed the Balkan Mountains, and took Adrianople. 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



313 



General Paskjevitck, in the meantime, was most fortunate in 
Asia. After the victorious battles of Konouly and Millidust, 
he had taken Erzerurn, and repulsed the Pasha of Tre- 
bizond in every direction. The Sultan, in consequence of all 
these reverses, was obliged to yield, and peace was at last es- 
tablished by the Treaty of Adrianople of the 14th September, 
1829. Eussia obtained the right of trading in Turkey, the 
free navigation of the Black Sea, the return of six Serbian 
districts to Prince Milosh, and an indemnity of war of 
10 millions of ducats. 

In return for the support of Eussia against the Viceroy of 
Egypt (in 1833) fche Porte entered into an alliance, offensive 1833. 
and defensive, with Eussia at Khunkiar-Jskelessi, by which 
the Turkish Government engaged, in case of a war be- 
tween Eussia and other foreign powers, to close the Dar- 
danelles against the enemies of the former country. Not- 
withstanding the strongest protests on the part of England 
and France, who even sent their squadrons to the Archi- 
pelago, Eussia did not rescind this contract until it expired 
in 1837. 

The Emperor Nicholas had highly disapproved of the 
measures adopted by the King of France, Charles X., and 
predicted a revolution, the importance of which with regard 
to Eastern Europe could not be foreseen. 

By the advice of the crafty Pozzo cli Borgo, Russian 
ambassador at Paris, who gave the most satisfactory assur- 
ances respecting the probable system of government of the 
new citizen king, the July throne was promptly recognized 
by Eussia, as well as (at the London Congress of 1831) the 
integrity of Belgium. 

The victory of the French people could not, however, re- 
main without a re-action on the Polish nation, whose country 
had been turned into a Russian province, and was suffering 
under the heavy hand of the Grand Duke Constantine. The 
29th November, 1 830, began with a revolution at Warsaw, 
which expelled the Russians from the town. The Polish 
patriots were, on the one hand, supported by cholera morbus 



314 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



(which not only carried off thousands of Eussian soldiers, but 
the Grand Duke Constantine and General Diebitsh them- 
selves) ; but, on the other, they were hampered, according to 
their ancient practice, by discord and treason. Under these 
circumstances they could not make head against their power- 
ful antagonist, who, after many sanguinary battles, pushed 
the shattered remnants of the Poles across the Austrian and 
Prussian frontiers, and subjected the country to all the severity 
of a rigorous military discipline, which sent thousands of 
them to Siberia. The Polish army was dissolved and put 
into Eussian regiments, and the Polish constitution hence- 
forth existed no more. Poland had been appropriated, and 
there remained but absolute force to keep it. A new con- 
spiracy, headed by Koinarski, being discovered, he, together 
with several citizens and students of Yilna and Kiev, 
were executed or exiled. With the aid of Prussia and 
Austria all Poles were expelled from Cracow, Posen, and 
Germany. 

About this time the mountain tribes, who inhabited the 
territory recently acquired from Persia, resisted the Eussian 
rule, and lived in open rebellion against the latter. Owing 
to the difficult country the Eussians had the greatest trouble 
in subduing these wild tribes, although they had an army of 
150,000 men in the field against the latter. England, in 
1835, concluded an alliance, offensive and defensive, with 
these warlike mountaineers, and supplied them , with arms 
and ammunition, and although the coasts were severely 
watched, and an English vessel earring arms, &c, was actually 
captured by the Eussians, the courage of the Caucasians 
never abated. This war ended only with the capture of 
Shamyl in 1859. 

The Czar Nicholas, although an enthusiastic soldier, was 
not a good general, and since 1833 remodelled his army 
according to the Prussian system, and abolished corporal 
punishment almost entirely. He also encouraged the fine 
arts and sciences, and showed himself most anxious to pro- 
mote the perfection of the Eussian language and literature. 



HISTOEY OF RUSSIA. 



315 



Kararazin, Pushkin, Bulgaria, Polevoy, ITstrzalov, Lerinon- 
tov, &c, were stars which shone during his reign. 

"When Kararnzin fell ill towards the end of his life, the 
Czar offered to have a frigate fitted out expressly for him, 
that he might perform his voyage to Italy surrounded with 
comfort and attended by the best medical advisers. To this 
advantage was attached moreover a pension of 7000/. 

He did not very graciously listen to the complaints of the 
lower classes, which were oppressed by their proprietors, 
although he is known to have been averse to the system of 
serfdom, but the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 had rendered 
him nervously sensitive to everything that in the remotest 
degree seemed to manifest a spirit of insubordination. For 
the same reason he interdicted the employment of foreign 
teachers, and opposed many obstacles to his subjects travelling 
abroad. Strange to say, while thus upholding serfdom within 
his own dominions, he, on the 21st May, 1841, issued an 
ukase, declaring the traffic with negroes amenable to the 
penalties of piracy. 

His greatest work is the new code of law, or " Svod zakon," 
which he began within the first six weeks after his acces- 
sion to the throne. The Emperor found in Speranski the 
most able instrument for the achievement of this gigantic 
work. 

The first publication of the Svod, at the end of 1832, 
was composed of fifteen quarto volumes, printed in double 
columns, and embracing eight books of codes, 36,000 articles 
(or 42,198 if the additions be included) are arranged therein 
in 1499 chapters, and a very detailed table, in alphabetical 
order, serves as a key and catalogue. The task of com- 
pletion was committed after Speranskiy death to Count 
Bludoff, who prosecuted legal and judiciary reform with 
energy and judgment. On the 15th August, 1845, he com- 
pleted the codes of criminal and correctional laws. 

The Czar Nicholas was a conscientious monarch, who 
earnestly desired the welfare of his people, but the revolution 
of 1848 seemed to have puzzled his understanding, as much as 



316 



THE ZASD OF THE CZAE. 



it did tliat of most monarchs and people of that time, He 
was intensely disgusted at his "brother-in-law's, Frederick 
"William IV. of Prussia, undecided measures, and he looked 
upon the latters removal of the military from Berlin and 
participation in subsequent popular demonstrations, as upon 
the acts of a madman. 
1848. On the other hand, he highly approved of the manner in 
which the Austrian Government was making head against 
the revolution. He, therefore, when the rising of the Mag- 
hyars threatened to make an end of the Austrian Empire, 
sent an army of 170,000 men, under the command of Pask- 
jevitch, Sass, and Budiger, into Hungary, by which he 
promptly suppressed the movement, and delivered many of 
the noblest patriots to the scaffold, prepared for them by a 
government, which, unaided, could not have resisted their 
struggle for liberty and independence. 

But his hardest trial was yet to come. The Oriental 
question had given birth to the Crimean war. Anxious for 
the integrity of the Turkish Empire and the much cited 
European balance of power, the English and French govern- 
ments had determined to operate such a check on Bussia as 
would for many years paralyze its power in the East. Eng- 
land's object was the indirect defence of the Indian colonies, 
and Louis Napoleon eagerly availed himself of the opportunity 
as the best means of consolidating his power by throwing to 
his nation another sop of military glory, of which he felt 
perfectly sure, backed up as he was by a power like England, 
not to speak of Turkey and Piedmont, who, however, proved 
no despicable allies. 

It is not our purpose to add to this sketch a full descrip- 
tion of the Crimean war, for, in the first instance, the limits 
of this work do not allow of it, and tken'it is so recent an 
event, and has been so fully and ably treated by some of the 
most eminent authors of this country, that the public could 
hardly feel interested by a condensed repetition in this 
place. 

1355. Since the death of Nicholas L (in 1855) the Bussian Em- 



HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 



317 



pire has been governed by his eldest son, the present Czar 
Alexander II., Xieholajevitch, and if the former was wor- 
shipped by his people with admiring awe. the present Emperor, 
by his liberal institutions, and particularly by the abolition of 
serfdom, has won not only the loye of his own nation, but 
the goodwill and approbation of the whole world. <S_o 



CHAPTER XXXI. 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 

The first attempts at Christianization of the Russian nations 
date as far back as the ninth century, when Olga, the 
widow of the Grand Duke Igor Rurikovich, and mother 
of the then reigning Grand Duke Svatoslav Igorovich, 
underwent baptism at Constantinople (in 955). She found, 
however, no imitators for 33 years, when her grandson 
Vladimir, after having carefully examined into the different 
forms and doctrines of the Christian Churches, and deliber- 
ately conferred with the grandees of the Empire, decided for 
the Oriental Religion, and was solemnly baptized by Greek 
priests. With the zeal of a new convert he commanded all 
his subjects to baptism. The old idols were publicly de- 
stroyed in the great square of his capital, Kiev, and although 
the common people witnessed the fall of their old gods with 
tearful grief, they were driven wholesale into the Dnjepr and 
received baptism. 

Kiev became henceforth the see of the Russian Metropo- 
litan and the Monastery of the Caves, which Vladimir had 
built, the centre of Christianizing efforts in Russia. The 
whole direction of Church matters was placed under the juris- 
diction of the Greek Patriarchs at Constantinople. wing- 
to this close connection with the Greek the Russian Church 
was not only drawn into dissensions with the Pope of Rome, 
but inspired with deep aversion to the whole Western 
Empire. 

Attempts at reconciliation made by the Popes Innocent 
III. (1208), Honorius III. (1227), and Innocent IV. (1248) 
proved altogether futile. 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 



319 



The Tartar Reign of Terror (1240—1481) did not inter- 
fere with the Church ; on the contrary, the wily Tartar Khans, 
aware of the power of the priests over the minds of the 
common people, favoured the Church by particular grants 
and exemption from taxes. 

In 1299 the seat of the Metropolitan was removed to 
Yladimir, whence again in 1328 to Moscow. It was from 
that city that the learned Metropolitan Isidor took part in 
the celebrated Florentine Concilium, but all his endeavours 
at a reconciliation with Rome was rendered useless by the 
opposition of the Grand Duke Yassilj III. (Yassiljevich), 
who obstinately refused to listen to any such scheme. 

In the same measure as the system of the Russian dynasties 
developed itself, so the Church gradually threw off Greek 
supremacy and assumed hierarchic independence. 

Yassilj III. (Yassiljevich) and his bishops accordingly 
elected the new Metropolitan without further reference to 
Constantinople, by which act all church authority was brought 
within the Grand Duke's power, and became vested in fact 
in his own person. 

Ivan III. (Yassiljevich) went still greater lengths by 
bestowing upon the ordained the shepherd's crook with his 
own hand. After the Turkish conquest Greek influence was 
altogether destroyed. 

Czar Feodor, desirous of procuring for his church an 
importance equal to that attending to the other Oriental 
Churches, and profiting by the pecuniary embarrassments of 
the Patriarch Jeremiah of Constantinople, proposed to him 
and obtained the establishment of a Patriarch of Moscow in 
the person of Job (1589), who subsequently ordained Arch- 
bishops of Kazan, ^Novgorod, Rostov and Kruritzi ; but, not- 
withstanding all this, the Muscovite Patriarchs, as late as 
the middle of the seventeenth century (at least pro forma) 
applied for their recognition by the Constantinople patriarchs. 
During the reign of Ivan IY. (Yassilyevich) another attempt 
was made to amalgamate, if possible, the Russian and Roman 
Churches. The Czar, anxious to induce the emigration of 



320 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



West-European artists and artizans into his country, soli- 
cited the German Emperor's and the Pope's support, at the 
same time holding out a chance of reconciliation. The Pope 
at once complied with his request, and sent him the Jesuit 
Possevin, who, however, by his immoderate zeal and pride 
very soon brought all negociations to an abrupt close, hardly 
escaping the honour of a severe castigation at the very hands 
of the eccentric monarch himself. At the end of this article 
we give an extract of the dialogue which had taken place on 
this occasion between the Czar and the Jesuit. 

After the fall of the Byzantine Empire the orthodox Czar 
of the Muscovites became the natural patron of the orthodox 
Oriental Church, and that under circumstances of supreme 
power, such as the successors of Constantine the Great had 
never enjoyed. This power reached its utmost height under 
Peter I. Instead of immediately filling the vacant chair of 
Father Hadrian, who died in 1702, he allowed the people 
time to get used to seeing the management of all clerical 
matters in the hands of a college of prelates, and in 1721 
abolished the patriarchal dignity altogether, declaring the 
said college the highest authority in the Church under the 
title of" The Holy Synod." 

All bishops, prelates, metropolitans, &c, stood, under the 
orders of this College, which again was under the direct 
control of the Czar himself, for the latter had declared him- 
self the Head of the Russian Church. This Cesareo-Papacy, 
however, does not apparently endanger the clerical dignity 
and the independent particularity of the Eussian Church 
system, as both are too deeply rooted in the character of the 
Russian people, as to become at all affected by government 
measures. Catharine II. certainly used her power so far as 
to confiscate all church property, but then she established a 
salaried priesthood, and invalided them at government 
expense, so that the Church after all did not suffer any great 
loss by that measure. 

In consequence of the innovations introduced into the 
liturgy by the Patriarch Nikon, many malcontents seceded 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 



321 



from the established church since 1666. Their sect is called 
that of the " Kascolniks." They call themselves, however, 
" Staroverdsi," or adherents to the old faith. They persisted 
with the most scrupulous conscientiousness on the exact 
fulfilment of the prescripts of their fathers, and abhorred 
the innovations in customs and way of living, which, since 
Peter's time and under the great influx of foreigners, steadily 
underwent important changes. Under the influence of 
fanaticism, they again split up into many small sects. 
Since the cessation of persecution, however, proselytism has 
ceased altogether. One of the sects, the " Dukhobordsi," 
are distinguished by their severe purity of morals and true 
Christian spirit. 

Diversity of languages, fear of abject subjection, the deep 
aversion of Mohammedans and other religionaries to Christian 
image worship, and other causes offered great difficulties to 
the spreading of the Kussian Church. In most cases, how- 
ever, these obstacles were met by the Eussian apostles in 
the most imperious manner. People were driven by thousands 
into rivers and lakes, and there baptized en masse by the 
shortest process possible. The prescribed forms of prayer being 
pronounced over them a cross was hung round their necks, 
and the thing was done. Fear and hope, threats and promises 
of worldly advantages, did more than inward conviction, of 
which it would have been difficult to say, that the Russians 
possessed a greater share than their heathenish neighbours 
or their Mohammedan fellow subjects. To this circumstance 
must be ascribed the mixture of early Christian, Moham- 
medan, and other superstitions, of which Russia affords 
strong evidence even at the present day. Although the 
Czar Ivan IV., Vassilyevich had already given proofs of a 
tolerant and liberal spirit, the Established Russian Church 
assumed that character only at the instance of Peter the 
Great. Previous to his reign, no heretic had been allowed 
to enter a Russian church ; and where this could not well be 
avoided, as in the case of great personages, the greatest care 
was taken lest they touched any of the holy vessels, &c. 



322 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



After their departure, the church was thoroughly purified 
and fumigated, so as to render it again deserving of the name 
of a house of God. Proselytes had to be baptized over again, 
and to abjure their old faith in the most extravagant terms. 
Even the tolerant Czar used always to wash his hand, which 
the heretical ambassadors had kissed. 

The Patriarch Joachim, painfully aware of Peter's admira- 
tion for foreign ways, conjured him in his will (1690) not to 
permit to his orthodox subjects any intercourse with the 
accursed Lutherans, Calvinists, Latins, Tartars, Moham- 
medans, Jews, &c, and not to afford them any abode in 
Holy Russia, In this he was backed by other churchmen. 
But Peter the Great, animated by an ardent desire to improve 
the worldly as well as the spiritual welfare of his people, by 
lifting them up to the level of civilization he had recognized 
in other nations, cared little for these whisperings of super- 
stition and fanaticism, and became the founder of an entirely 
new epoch of tolerance and enlightenment for the Russian 
empire. In 1702 he issued his celebrated decree, by which 
he accorded to all Christian churches free religious exercise 
throughout the empire, opened to foreigners the hitherto 
doubly-barred gates of Cesarism, and admitted the detested 
heretics within the circle of citizenship. 

With a view to the reformation of the Russian Church, he 
insisted on a superior education of the priests and on a dis- 
creet management of the convents. He forbade the building 
of new convents, reduced their number by incorporating 
several in one, and interdicted the reception within their 
walls of married men during the life of their wives, of 
military men, serfs, officials, of debtors or criminals. Every 
novice had to be at least thirty years old, and to serve for 
three years in that capacity. To prevent idleness, he found 
full employment for the monks, particularly in setting 
them to nurse the sick poor in hospitals as well as at their 
houses. 

He established seminaries for the education of priests. 
The Metropolitans he allowed to die out, and replaced them 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 



323 



by bishops, to whom he severely enjoined charity and 
moderation of their orthodox zeal. 

His Czarina, Catharine L, religiously continued to carry 
out his wishes in that respect after his death. 

All the more narrow-minded were the following govern- 
ments, viz., those of Peter II., of Anna, but particularly that 
of the bigoted Elizabeth. Although the government of the 
last-named sovereign was distinguished by the introduction 
of Christianity in Siberia, she, on the other hand, encouraged 
monastic institutions and other superstitious bigotry as much 
as possible. 

Peter III. fell a victim to his immoderate zeal of refor- 
mation as regards the secular and clerical matters in the 
empire. 

The great Catharina II. governed in Church, as in all 
other matters, with prudent moderation, and opposed the 
clergy only, when she deemed it absolutely necessary for the 
good of the country. It was only under this impulse that 
she ordered the confiscation of the monastic property. 

Paul L, Alexander I., and Nicholas I. remained true to 
these principles, and it is owing to those enlightened Czars 
that the inhabitants of the Russian empire are beholden for 
the tolerant modern spirit of the Russian Church. 

Princesses, marrying into the imperial family, and con- 
sequently entering the Greek Russian Church, are no more 
compelled to curse their old faith, and proselytes in general 
are simply anointed and not baptized over again. Hence- 
forth we perceive the most courteous and amicable inter- 
course between the Russian and heretical clergy, although 
proselytism from the Russian Church is still strictly inter- 
dicted. 

The Russian Church holds the following prerogatives : 

" No clergyman of another confession is allowed to receive 
a Russian subject into his Church ; 

" All children of mixed marriages must be brought up in 
the Russian faith ; 

" The same law applies to foundlings ; 

T 2 



324 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



" No foreigner, having once joined the orthodox Church, 
is allowed to rescind." 

The profession of other creeds does not, however, exclude 
from government offices. 

DOCTRINE, CONSTITUTION, AND CULTURE OF 
THE RUSSIAN CHURCH. 

Although emancipated of Constantinople, the doctrine re- 
mained on the whole that of the Greek Church, i.e., similar 
in spirit to that contained in the confession of Peter Mogilas 
and others. 

After the Grand dukes had declared their church inde- 
pendent from Constantinople, the Patriarch of Moscow be- 
came the Head of the Church. 

Owing to this dignity and the feeling of the people, his 
position and rank was considered only inferior to that of the 
Grand Duke and his family. He held a seat by the side of 
the Grand Duke, and his income was appropriate to the 
splendour of his household. 

His advice was asked in all serious affairs of the State, and 
no war declared or peace concluded without him. 

The " Sacred Synod," into whose hands Peter I. consigned 
the government of the Church, consisted at first of twelve 
members, but this number was subsequently and alternately 
increased or lessened. 

The Czar chooses the same from among the Bishops, 
Archimandrites, Hegumenes, and Protopopes. 

Added to their number is a secular member in the capacity 
of Highest Councillor of the Imperial Crown. 

The seat of the Synod is at St. Petersburg, but a college 
dependent on the same exists at Moscow. 

The Russian clergy consist of Monks, on account of their 
black dress called " Black Clergy," who alone can attain to 
the highest dignities of the Church (and must strictly observe 
the vow of celibacy), and the secular clergy, who not only 
are allowed, but obliged to marry. They can only hold in- 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 



325 



ferior offices. Notwithstanding their generally brown or 
blue dress, they are called the " White Clergy." 

The Monastic clergy are divided into four classes, consist- 
ing :— 

1. Of Archierei or Prelates, to whom belong all Metropoli- 

tans, Archbishops, and Bishops, who, though all subject 
to the Sacred Synod of St. Petersburg, still have each 
their own Exarchies. Of these Exarchies, there are 39, 
of which 32 are in Europe, viz., at Kiev, Novgorod, Mos- 
cow, St. Petersburg, Jarosslav, Novo Tcherkask, Pskov, 
Rjazan, Tver, Yekaterinoslav, Mohilev, Tchernigov? 
Minsk ; in Podolia and Bessarabia, Kishinyev ; in Ka- 
luga, Smolensk, Neezhnei-Novgorod, Kursk, Vladimir, 
Vologda, Tula, Voronezh, Costroma, Archangel, Tam- 
bov, Orel, Poltava, Kasan, and Astrachan. 
In Asia are seven, viz., at Tobolsk, Vjatka, Irkutsk, 
Perm, Pensa, and Georgia. 

2. Of Archimandrites (Abbots), and 

3. Hegumenes (Priors), from whom the Bishops are chosen; 

4. Of Monks and Anachorites, who hold divers offices in 

monasteries and seminaries. 

There are in Russia about 580 monastic establishments, 
with nearly 8000 monks ; but only seven convents, with about 
300 nuns. In the case of suppression by the G-overnment, 
both monks and nuns are supported by the State, a rather 
cheap degree of generosity, as their way of living is extremely 
simple and inexpensive. 

The secular clergy (to whom a second marriage is inter- 
dicted under penalty of being unfrocked) stand under their 
respective exarchies. Of them the Headpriests, Protopopes, 
or Protorei, who are attached to a great church or cathedral, 
hold the highest ranks and are the immediate superiors of 
the ordinary popes or priests who form the most numerous 
portion of the clergy, and have to perform the common ser- 
vice. There are also deacons, sub-deacons, lectors, sextons, 
clerks, cantors, who, likewise, receive a sort of ordination, 
but different from that of the priests. 



326 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The secular clergy have the particular charge of the souls 
of their congregations, and to attend to the Confession and 
the Sacraments, even at the Imperial Court ; the Prelates, on 
the other hand, read Mass, and preach only on the occasion 
of a high festival and holidays. 

All the clergy are paid by the State, and are free of taxation. 

In spiritual matters they stand under the special jurisdic- 
tion of their bishops and the Sacred Synod; in civil and 
criminal things, however, under that of secular tribunals. 

The sons of secular priests are not exempt from military 
service. 

There are four clerical academies in which the clergy re- 
ceive their education, viz., at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, 
and Kasan, together with 58 monastic schools. 

The upper clergy receive a somewhat superior education, 
although severely bound to a rigid dogma. 

The lower clergy, on the other hand, are lamentably ignorant 
and uncultivated, hardly superior to the peasants, and it is 
only since the reign of Alexander I. that they have become 
exempted from the public infliction of the knout. They are 
badly paid, and forced to agricultural labour, while their 
monastic brethren, the upper clergy, are enjoying the most 
bountiful revenues. 

The Russian churches are built in the Oriental style. They 
have vestibule, temple, and the chancel, only admissible to 
priests. Their exteriors are generally ornamented by five 
cupolas, one in the middle (the largest), and four on the 
corners. They are often gaily painted and gilt, and topped 
by double or single crosses. Prayer is performed standing, 
or while prostrated with the face touching the ground. The 
prayer of the priests is interrupted at intervals by a chaunt 
consisting but of three strophes, as, " Gospodi pomolimssa ! " 
(Lord, we pray Thee)," Gospodi pomilui ! " (Lord, have mercy 
onus !)," Podai Gospodi;" (Give that, Lord!), executed m 
the larger churches by a special choir, but without instru- 
mental accompaniment. As in the Oriental, so in the Rus- 
sian Churches, are no carved, but only painted images, with 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 



327 



the exception of statues of angels. The former are seldom 
of artistic value, and painted in the old Byzantine style on 
gold ground. 

The festivals of the Eussians are on the whole those of the 
other Christian churches. A peculiar ceremony is that of 
the " Blessing of the water," which takes place at three 
different seasons of the year, viz., in winter, spring, and 
high-summer. The sacred images are submerged into the 
water, which by this act becomes purified (idol washing). 
There is, moreover, the Fruit Feast on the 6th August, when 
all fruit receives benediction ; and that of the herds and 
flocks on the 23rd April, when all cattle is blessed. The so- 
named " Moleben," or Personal Blessing, means the purifi- 
cation of certain individuals, which takes place in the Church, 
and generally on the day of their patron saints. The cere- 
mony consists in the priest's singing and praying over the 
candidates, and fumigating them. In the Kasanski Church, 
in St. Petersburg, on the 7th March to this day, is pro- 
nounced in the presence of a great concourse of people a 
general curse on all secular and clerical heresies. 

Preaching was formerly interdicted for fear of the spreading 
of new doctrines. It is owing to this circumstance, that so 
few pulpits were found in Russian churches. 

The Church language is still the old Slavonic. The spoken 
part of the service is therefore as unintelligible to the com- 
mon people, as the Latin to the generality of Roman Catholic 
congregations. 

Many figurative usages, mostly of humoristic tendency, 
and dating from the most ancient times, are still in exist- 
ence amongst the people. 

OBSEKVATIONS. 

As a proof of the rude elements which sometimes found 
their way into the Church, I will only relate the following 
instance : — " In the reign of the pious Grand Duke Andrej 
Yurjevich (1169-1174) lived a Monk Theodore, who having 



328 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



succeeded in ingratiating himself with the above prince, was 
sent by the latter to Kiev, there to receive his episcopal ordi- 
nation at the hands of the Metropolitan. Assured of the 
patronage of the prince, Theodore thought he might dispense 
with the ceremony mentioned, and forthwith assumed the 
title of bishop. Being a rapacious, bad man, he at once 
began to annoy and outrage the inhabitants of the villages 
under his control. Not even the monks, abbots, and priests 
escaped his tyranny. He put the greatest indignity on the 
people by having their heads and beards shaved. He ordered 
them to be crucified, blinded, and to have their tongues cut 
out, so that they should yield up their property to him. The 
Grand Duke, for some time, resented his misdeeds only by 
earnest remonstrances ; but, emboldened by this leniency, 
the wretch had all the churches in Vladimir locked up, 
taking the keys into his possession. This proved, however, 
the last feather on the camel's back, for the people rose up 
like one man, and forced the Grand Duke to ulterior mea- 
sures. He had Theodore unfrocked and handed over for 
punishment to the Metropolitan, whereupon this good prelate 
had Theodore deprived of his eyes, tongue, and right hand ; 
"for this heretic," so the annals tell us, " had blasphemed 
the Holy Mother of God." 

DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE CZAR IVAN IV. (VASSILJEVICH), AND 
THE JESUIT POSSEVIN, CONCERNING THE AMALGAMATION 
OF THE RUSSIAN AND ROMAN CHURCHES. 

" We are ready," the Czar began, " to talk the matter 
over with you, but only in the presence of our servants, and, 
if possible, without loud dispute, for every man loving his 
religion feels irritated by contradictions on that point. Dis- 
pute engenders discord ; but I desire peace and love." 

On the day appointed (21 Feb. 1582) Possevin, with three 
other Jesuits, entered the Throne-room, where Ivan, sur- 
rounded by his boyars, dvoryans, and princes in waiting of 
the first rank, expected him. He received the Pope's am- 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 



329 



bassador most graciously^ but begged hini warmly not to 
discuss the question of the faith, adding : — u Antonio, I am 
now in my fifty-second year, and have not many more years 
of my life to expect. Brought up in the doctrine of our 
Church, which so materially differs from the Latin one, 
could I at my age turn traitor and forswear my faith ? The 
day of the heavenly judgment is near ; it will therefore soon 
be made manifest which of our faiths be the holiest a^. 
purest. But speak, if you must." 

Possevin replied : " Most serene Lord ! Of all the acts of 
grace and condescension of which you made me the un- 
worthy object, this permission to speak with you on a subject 
so important for the eternal welfare of the Christian world, 
is the greatest. 

" Think not, Sire, that it is the Holy Father's intention 
to persuade you to leave the Greek Church ; no, he only begs, 
that you make yourself acquainted with that Church, such 
as it originally had been, that you obey the edicts of the 
(Ecumenical Councils, and that you would uphold the true 
doctrine as an unalterable law throughout your dominions. 
In such a manner all differences will be smoothed away, 
and we all shall be one Body with Jesus Christ, to the un- 
utterable joy of the alone true, God-appointed Shepherd of 
the Christian Church ! 

"Sire! Do you not yourself acknowledge the Holy 
Father as the chief head of Christianity, by soliciting him to 
give peace to Europe, and to procure an alliance of all the 
sovereigns of the Christian World to the destruction of the 
Infidels ? Have you not evinced a particular reverence for 
the Koman Apostolic faith, by allowing Roman Catholics to 
settle in Russia, and to worship the Highest God according 
to the holy rites of their Church ? 

" Can this general peace and alliance of Christian sovereigns 
have any other foundation but a perfect unity of faith ? You 
know that this unity has been confirmed by the Florentine 
Council, by the Emperor, by the clergy of the Greek empire, 
yea, even by Isidor, the highest hierarch of your Church. 



330 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Bead the declarations of that Council (the 8th (Ecumenical), 
and if there should he any points on which you have "been 
misinformed, command me ? and I will endeavour to clear up 
the dark passages. The truth is obvious ; if thou accept it, 
what glory, what greatness, thou wilt attain to, in the 
Brotherly Alliance, with the greatest monarchs of Europe. 
Thou shalt have not only Kiev, Russia's old property, nay, 
the whole Byzantine empire, which God has taken from the 
Greeks in punishment of their falling off, and of their dis- 
obedience towards Christ, our Saviour ! " 
The Czar promptly answered : 

" We have never written to the Pope concerning the faith. 
I did not wish to discuss this subject with thee even ; for, 
in the first instance, I feel averse to wounding thy heart by 
a chance hard word, and then my princely duty is strictly 
confined to the worldly affairs of my country, and does not 
comprise the spiritual welfare of my subjects, which I leave, 
together with my own, in the hands of our mediator before 
Christ, the Metropolitan. Thou speakest boldly, for thou 
art a priest, and hast been sent here from Eome with this 
set purpose. We do not look to the Greeks for gospel. We 
believe in Christ, and not in the Greeks. And now, as to 
the Oriental Empire, know thou, that I am quite content 
with what I have got, and do not covet any new dominions 
in this world ; and as to the next, I ask but for the gracious 
mercy of God." 

Without any reference to the Florentine Council, or to 
the general Christian Alliance of princes against the Saracens, 
Ivan, in proof of his friendship for the Pope of Rome, pro- 
mised full liberty and protection to all foreign merchants 
and priests of the Latin faith ; but only on the condition 
that they strictly desisted from any religious discussions with 
his Russian subjects. The Jesuit wished to continue the 
debate. He accused the Russians of heretical innovations, 
and asserted boldly that Rome alone was the old capital of 
Christianity. 

The Czar began to get chafed. 



THE CHURCH OF RUSSIA. 



332 



" Thou boastest of the truth of thy faith, yet dost thou 
shave thy beard," cried he ; " thy Pope lets himself be 
carried about on a throne, and his slipper, with the emblem 
of a crucifix, be covered with the kisses of thousands of 
Christians. What glory for the humble shepherd of Christ ! 
What humiliation for the holiest (sanctuary) ! " 

" No humiliation," retorted Possevin ; " honour unto whom 
honour belongs ; the Pope is the head of Christianity, the 
guide of all faithful monarchs, the sharer of the throne of 
the Apostle Peter, nay, of that of Christ himself! " . . . . 

Ivan here abruptly fell in : 

" The Christians have only one father, that which is in 
Heaven. We princes of the earth are raised to our position 
in obedience to a worldly law. Let the disciples of the 
apostles then be humble and wise ! To us Princes belongs 
Cesarean, to Popes and patriarchs episcopal honour. We 
revere our Metropolitan also ; but he walks on earth like all 
mea, and does not presume to hold up his head above kings. 
Some of the Popes were indeed true disciples of the apostles, 
as, for instance, Clement, Sylvester, Leo, Agathon, Gregor. 
. . . But he, who dares to call himself a sharer of Christ's 
throne, who has himself carried on a seat (as on a cloud by 
angels), he who does not live according to the holy Christian 
doctrine, such a Pope is a wolf and no shepherd." . . . 

Possevin here indignantly exclaimed : "If the Pope is to 
be called a wolf, then I have nothing more to say ! " 

Ivan, recovering his equanimity, calmly rejoined : 

" See, now, why I would not talk with thee on matters of 
faith, for involuntarily one party ever vexes the other. How- 
ever, I did not call Gregor XIII. a wolf, but spoke only of 
a Pope who does not follow Christ. Now, let the matter 
rest." 

Ivan put his hand caressingly on Possevin's shoulder, 
dismissed him graciously, and ordered the choicest plates 
from his table to be carried to him. Two days after this, he 
sent again for Possevin. The latter, in the Pope's name 
entreated the Czar to send young, intelligent Russians to 



332 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Rome, there to make themselves acquainted with the true 
dogmata of the original Greek Church, to study the Latin 
and Italian languages, and to impart their own to the Italians. 
He pressed the Czar to expel from the Russian dominions 
the venomous Lutherans, who denied both the Holy Virgin 
and the sanctity of the righteous in Christ, and to admit 
only Latin priests. 

The Czar promised to look out some young Russians suited 
for the purpose mentioned, and when he had found, to send 
them to the Pope ; but gave the Jesuit at the same time 
clearly to understand, that Lutherans, as well as all foreigners 
not of the Russian Church, including Roman Catholics, 
should enjoy equal liberty and protection, always provided 
they did not communicate their erroneous doctrines to 
Russian subjects. 

Possevin's zealous efforts regarding the erection of Latin 
churches in Russia did not meet with the slightest success. 
" The Roman Catholics are at liberty to live with us a godly 
and honourable life, that is enough ! " 



CHAPTEE XXXII. 



THE LANGUAGES OF KUSSIA. 

The great guide to a just appreciation of the intellectual 
life of nations are their languages and literature. The 
Russian language is generally regarded by peoples of West- 
ern Europe as a thing almost beyond their reach, its study 
and acquisition as next to impracticable, and as holding out 
no final reward proportionate to the toil required. 

It is therefore a matter of little wonderment to meet with 
questions by a generality of people, even of the educated 
classes, such as the following : — 

" Does Russia possess any literature ? " 
" Is it possible that a language which we understand to 
be uncouth and barbarous, like the many primitive peoples 
themselves, who inhabit that immense country, could be 
made to express anything but the accents of fierce passions, 
or at most, the terms of daily business transacted for mere 
material existence ? " 

" Allowing for prejudice and comparative ignorance on 
this subject — is it really worth the trouble wading through 
all the intricacies of the formidable Russian grammar, 
merely to find at the end lame poetry, partial historical 
records, clerical books, translations, &c, to reward the 
labour ? " 

No doubt the Russian language is very difficult in 
grammar, style, and pronunciation, and that to the Russian 
himself, as well as to the foreigner ; but it holds out to the 
persevering student a delightful reward, by introducing him 
to literary fields of peculiar freshness and productive power, 



334 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



and laying open before him some of the most interesting- 
pages in the history of man. 

Oceans are traversed, inhospitable deserts, mountains, and 
stormy seas crossed, neither plague nor the dangers of 
savage nature in any shape are regarded in the search 
after traces of our fellow-man, of nations long since passed 
away. 

With reverend awe we stand before the marks they have 
left of their intellectual condition ! A stone, a broken utensil, 
a shapeless lump of mineral, hardly sufficient to convey to 
us a feeble idea of institutions long gone by, or of purely 
mechanical ability, are rapturously recognized by Science, 
brought away and guarded with religious care, as the sacred 
relics of the divine spirit of Man. 

But how little do these mementoes after all speak to our 
hearts ? 

In almost every case are they but indicators of a rude, 
material existence. There are no witnesses of the feelings 
that animated ancient times, no sound of love, no trembling 
throb of the heart unveiling to us the sentiments of hatred, 
the fire of passion, the love of battle, the smile of peace or 
joy of life, or of that happy exaltation of soul, that pervades 
our whole being, after we have lifted it up to the thought of 
Eternity in a trusting, heartfelt prayer to Jehovah, Allah, 
God. What dead fragments and stones can never tell us, 
that we find revealed to us in the living Word, that godsent 
Messiah of the Spirit, manifesting what in the sacred crypt 
of our soul is sown, germinates, and blossoms ! 

The living Word we must explore, if we would know what 
former nations have been, how they thought, loved, wor- 
shipped, hated ! But here we have to do with a living 
people, a great nation of a most interesting past, and a 
glorious promise of the future ! If our imagination and zeal 
of research is fired by mementoes of the bygone, with what 
love and eagerness ought we not to throw ourselves into the 
study of the living, and to endeavour to penetrate into the 
inmost recesses of their linguistic and literary treasures. 



THE LANGUAGES OF RUSSIA. 



335 



In that spirit I invite yon, reader, to follow me for a little 
while to the beautiful literary fields of Russia, to those mys- 
terious mountains, over which flowed that living Word and 
diffused itself into the different families of man now inhabit- 
ing our own happy zone, and of which we are members. 

The Russian language as at present spoken, may be said 
to have reached its actual height of elegance and power 
during the present century, which witnessed the final and 
complete settlement (by Pushkin), of the long strife between 
the clerical and popular tongues. It is by no means deserv- 
ing of the title of harsh and unpronounceable ; on the con- 
trary, it is melodious, and in a high degree capable of the 
most subtle and delicate turns and inflexions. The difficulty 
of its grammar and pronunciation has been much exag- 
gerated ; although it cannot be denied, that especially the 
latter demands the student's persevering practice. There are 
some letters of the alphabet, the pronunciation of which is 
seldom attained by foreigners, but then how many foreigners 
does one meet in England, who can pronounce the " th " and 
often many other letters, without at once betraying their 
Continental origin. Its syntax, &c, being so entirely differ- 
ent from anything one may have been used to in connection 
with the languages of Western Europe, one feels, as one 
advances, more and more interested; but when the scholar is 
once able to begin reading Russian authors in the original 
text, the study becomes a source of exquisite delight. 

The introduction of the native or Slavonic language dates, 
of course, as far back as the invasion of Russia by the Slavonic 
nations of the Danube, viz., towards the end of the fourth 
century. The first elements of civilization and spiritual 
progress being introduced into Russia by the Greek clericals, 
the task of establishing a written language fell on those men, 
who, not perfectly knowing the Slavonic tongue, introduced 
many Greek words into the original Slavonic ; and so it came 
that the so-called Church language (almost unintelligible 
to the Russian people) originated, and that the people, 
on the other hand, made use of a dialect peculiarly their 



336 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



own, and from which the present Eussian language has 
sprung. 

But there are many other languages spoken by the different 
nations and tribes subject to the Imperial Eussian Crown. 
Most interesting are those of the Caucasus, as the reader 
will acknowledge when he has perused the following few 
examples : — 

A. The Lesghistan of eight principal dialects : 

1st. The dialect in the districts of Chunsag or Avar, 
Karseruk, Hidatle, Mukratle, Ansokul, Karachle, 
Gumbet, Avrakan, Burtuna, Anzag, Tebel, Tamurga, 
Achti, Euthul, Dshar, Belakan. 

2nd. In Dido and Unso. 

3rd. In Kabutsh. 

4th. Of the Andi. 

5th. In Akusha, Kubetsha, Zudakara. 

6th. The Kassi-Khoomyk. 

7th. In Kaidak, Kara Kaidak and Tabaszeran. 

8th. In Kura. 

There are properly only five languages in Lesghistan : — 

1st. The Avarian. 

2nd. The Kas&i-KIwomyk. 

3rd. The Akusha. 

4th. The Kurayan in Southern Daghestan. 

Interesting is the similarity of Hunnish names and many 
of the names in use to-day amongst the Avares. 



Humiish. 
Uld, Uldin, Uldes 
Attila 

Bleda or Boodach 

Ellak 

Dinghizik 

Eska, daughter of Attila 
Balamir 



Avarian. 
Ulclin (an Avare family) 
Addilla (common name of men) 
Boodach (family name) 
Ellak (Lesgh. men's name) 
Dingazik (fam. name) 
Eska (antiq. woman's name) 
Balamir (masc. name) 



THE LANGUAGE OF LESGHISTAN. 337 



Hunnish. 



Almus 

Leel 

Zolta 

Geysa 

Sarolta 



Avarian. 
Armuss 
Leel 
Ssolta 
Gaisza 
Sarolta. 



The Avarian language is exceedingly rough and harsh. 
Their numbers are : — 



one 
zo 

six 
anntt'l 



two 
ke 

seven 
ant'l 

100 
nuss 



Avare Declensions : — 

Singular. 
Nom. & Acc. Tshi — 



Gen. 
Dat. 
Voc. 
Abl. 1st 
„ 2nd 



three four 
chchlyab unnkk 



eight 
mitl' 



five 
shu 

ten 
annzz 



nine 
itsh 

1000 

asar (Persian hesar) : 



Tshial— 
Tshial— 
Tshi!— 
Tshiatze — 
Tshialtul— 



man 
of man 
to man 
oh man ! 
from man 



Plural. 
Adamal 
Adamaltnl 
Adamal tnl 
Eh Adamal ! 
Adamatza 
Adamalchiolo 



Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Acc. 
Voc. 
Abl. 1st 
„ 2nd 



Singular. 
Tsheshn — the woman 
Tsheshul — of the „ 
Tsheshul — to „ „ 
Tsheshu — the „ 
Tsheshn ! — oh woman ! 
Tsheshntze — from the woman 
Tsheshntul — 



Plural. 
Entshabe 
Kutshabatul 
Eutshabatnl 
Eutshabe 
Entshabe ! 
Eutshabetza 
Eutshabechiolo 



I receive bread from the mother. 

Ebel t'laltasza tshed posla. Verbally : 

Bread given by mother received. 



338 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



This is the dress of my mother. 
Diir ebel t'lalul redkuashe. 

This dress I have given to my mother. 
Hav redkuashe diir ebel t'ladacht'le. 

They killed the mother. 
Ebel tshuara. 

Mother give bread ! 
Ebel tshed possi. 



Lasting : Kvanalya ; 
Small : Hetinav ; 
Walking : Itlyanago ; 
Odil : To weep ; 
Uetrianchila : I langh ; 
Gumalleh : I eat ; 
Kah : I drink ; 

Avila 
Duz avila 
Dos avila 
Neyez avila 
Noyez avila 
Doski avila 



Not lasting : Kvanalyari. 
Not small : Hetinaguro. 
Not walking : Itlyanagoro. 
Odolyayugo : She weeps. 
Uetl'yolyango : He laughs. 
Gum alia : He eats. 
Kiikchola : He drinks. 

I speak 
Thou speakest 
He speaks 
We speak 
You speak 
They speak 



The Lord's Prayer in the tongue of the Chunzag :— 

Emen nedsher sovaldaish bugevh; 
Father our in Heaven Thou art ; 

Hallal bugabi diir Zar ; 
Pure be Thy name; 

Watshagai kodolch'ti diir; 
Come kingdom Thine; 

Bugabi chatir diir kin sovalda hagadin ratl'alda 
Be will Thine like Heaven in, likewise earth in 

Tshed nedsher kol'goh tie nedsher dshaka 
Bread our constant give us to-day. 



M1TZDSHEGI LANGUAGES. 



339 



Te'h nedslier nalti kin nedshedsha tolah bugevh 
Forgive our trespass like we forgiving are 

nedsher nalti bukarasa. 
to onr trespassers. 

Bedsheg nish kadir alda 
Not bring ns temptation in 

Khallastun nish tkuesh'tialda 
Deliver us evil from 

Diir bugevh aldshant'khli, Gutsh, Tshukur, dunialaltsbul ! 
Thine is kingdom, Power, Glory, eternities in. 

2nd Root of language, near Derbend (Caspian), the 
Kassi-Khoomyk. 

3rd Root. The Akuska in the mountainous district of 
Akusha, as far as the Koissu. This language has many 
words in common with the Kassi-Khoomyk, but its 
syntax points to altogether different roots. 



Ex. : God dies not, Man's life is short. 



Akuska. 
God: Zallachi 
Death : adshal 
Not : deekk'ku 
Man's : adinili 
Life : iomuru 
Short : kantle 



Kassi-KJwomyk. 
God : Wassal 
Death : adshal 
Without : bakkassa 
Man : adamia 
Long : lakima 
Not lives : kalitsheissari. 



MITZDSHEGI LANGUAGES. 

The Mitzdshegi form, with the exception of the T'hushi, 
three great tribes : — ■ 

1st. The Galgai, Halha or Ingush, who go also by the 
name of Lamur. 



2nd. The Ckarabulack (Tartar : black spring), who call 

z 2 



340 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



themselves Arshte, and who are named by the Tshet- 
shents : Arishtoyai*. 

3rd. The Tshetshents. 

Ex. : God dies not, Man's life is short. 
Dele lervacls stighi adshil jadsvi. 

The mother kisses her children. 
Shen bereshni bartlo sjunut. 

THE LANGUAGE OF THE OSSETS. 

The Lord's Prayer : — 

Fi'd makh kkhazi de vol-arvi, 
Father our who art in Heaven, 

Si'hdag wond nom dav, 

Hallowed be name thine, 

Arzavod da-eldarad, 
Come thy kingdom, 

Yod bar dakhi kkhiid vol-arvi avte bass til 
Be will thine as in Heaven so earth on ; 

Dsul makh bonti ratt makhen abon, 
Bread ours daily give us to-day, 

Ama muvads makhen khasst makh, ania 
And forgive us trespass ours, and 

makhder kkhiid nuvadsem khasstargithen 
we so forgive trespassers ; 

ama ma-bakkhal makh akhss'isgoni, 
and not lead us temptation in, 

ama fervasin-khan makh fidb'ilisei ! 
and deliver us from flesh evil. 

Many verbs are conjugated with kkhanin — to do ; as — 

I bend arvalat kkhanin 

I vex myself medd ,, 



OSSETINIAN VOCABULARY. 



341 



I thank arfi kkhanin 

I uncover gum „ 

I am ashamed kliudinag „ 

I spit tu „ 

Drink not, if not thirsty. 
Do not fall into another's speech. 

Thirst without not drink = donug nevai mabanas. 
When somebody speaks = kkhad kkhe dsuri 
Not speak ! = ma-dsidsur ! 



Sea: denghis, foord ; Tartar: dengis ; Tshetshents : chort; 

Ingush : furt ; Gallic : fairshe, wave and sea. 
Water : don ; Gallic : tonn, wave. 

Star : stahleh, stal ; Send. : staranu ; Kurdh : stera, sterk ; 

Persian : szitareh ; Latin : stella ; German : Stern. 
Mist : mikh ; Kurdh : mesg. 

Rain : saran ; Kurdh : baran ; Persian : baran ; Irish : forrin. 
Evening : ser ; Ital. : sera ; French : soir ; Tshetshents : sar- 

rakh ; Ingush : seire. 
God : Khuzav; Dug or. : Khzau; Persian: Khoda; Kurdh: 

Khudi ; Aghuan. : Khudai. 
Father : fi'd ; Dugor. : fidde (means also flesh) ; Persian : 

peder ; mader, mother ; Lat. : pater, mater. 
Mother : mad ; Dugor. : made ; Pers. : mader ; Letts and 

Livon. : mate ; Papa : ada ; Mama : ana. 
Sister : kho ; Dugor. : khur ; Welsh : khuar ; Bretan : hoar ; 

Cornish : khor ; Kurdh : khussk. 
Name : nom ; Pers. : nam ; Kurdh : nave ; Samsk. : nama ; 

Hindost. : naam ; Lat. : nomen ; Germ. : Name. 
Smell : schmack ; Germ. : geschmack ; Anglo-Saxon : swek. 
Tooth : dendeg, dendak ; Kurdh : dedan ; Send. : dentano ; 

Pehlvi: dandan; Be?igal : d&iit; Swed.: tand; Lat. : 

dens ; French : dens ; Ital. : dente ; Germ. : Zahn. 
Throat : khurkh ; Kurdh : gheru ; Russ. : gorlo ; Germ. : 

Gurgel ; French : gorge. 



342 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



Nail : nakk, naekk ; Kurdh : nainuk ; Aghuan. : nuk ; Pers. : 
nakken ; Hindost. : nuk ; Lithuan. : nagai ; Livon. : 
naggi ; Germ. : Nagel. 

Heart : serde ; Russ. : sserdze ; Send. : erezem ; Lithuan. : 
ssirdiss ; Livon. : sirde ; Germ. : Herz. 

Horse : urss ; Akusha : urtski ; Anglo-Saxon : kors. 

Cow : kkkng ; Germ. : Kuk. 

Pig : kkuy ; Pers. : kkug ; Engl. : kog. 

Cat : gado ; Russ. : kosk ; Celt. : katk ; Ersian: ket ; Anglo- 
Saxon: kat; French: ckat; Ltal. : gatto; Germ.: 
katze, &c. 

Bear : ars ; Lat. : ursus. 

Egg : aik ; Kurdh : kak, ek ; Old Germ. : eig ; Swed. : eg. 
Fly : bindsa ; Germ. : Biene. 

Tree: kkkad; Bretan.: koad; Welsh: kued; Romanish: gaut. 
Trunk : kodakk ; Latin : caudex ; Pers. : kendek. 
Branch: kalius, solo; Wendish: and Sorab.: galusa; Polish: 

golousk ; Greek : klados. 
Eye : syl ; Lat. : secale ; French : seigle ; Cornish : segel ; 

Lrish : segol, &c. 
Wheat : mannau, mannaw. 

Court : kkart ; Gothic : gart ; Old German : gard ; Zirydn 
and Perm. : katta ; Lrish : kurt ; Ltal. : corte, &c. 

Door: duar; Kurdh: deri ; Pers.: der ; Slav.: dver; Old 
Germ. : dura ; Greek : Ovpa ; Germ. : Tkiire, &c. 

Ship : nau ; Kurdh : naw ; Lat. : navis, &c. 

Iron : avssamak ; Kurdh : kassin, asen. 

Yoke : osyau; Pers. : yugk ; Germ. : Jock. 

Cap : kkud ; Germ. : Hut. 

Manslaughter : mard ; Kurdh : mer ; Pers. : miird. 
Cause (j^iatter) : kkus; Lat. : causa (cosa, ckose, &c). 
Sleep : kkuss ; Welsh : kisgu ; Cornish : kusga. 
Young (new) : noogk, novag ; Kurdh : nii ; Pers. : nu 7 nav ; 

Germ. : neu. 
Good : kkors ; Slav. : khorosk. 

Great : istir, stir ; Dugor. : stur ; Old Germ. : stur; Banish : 
stor ; Swed. : sturt ; Lettish : stur. 



OSSETINIAN VOCABULARY. 



343 



One : evniss ; Lat, : unus ; Germ. : eins. 

Only-born : evniss-gburd ; Lat. : unigenitus. 

Visible : uidtte ; Lat. : video ; Russ. : veezbu. 

Sharp : zirg ; Kurdk : ssraf ; Germ. : scbarf. 

Dead : martt ; Kurdh : mer ; Pers. : merg ; Bretan : mart ; 

Send. : mret ; Pehlvi: murd ; Bengal : mort ; Lat. : 

mortuus, &c. 
Dark : tar ; Kurdh : tari ; Pers. : tarik. 
Other : andar, andarti ; Germ. : anders. 
All : ul, ali ; Germ. : alle. 
More (much) : filder ; Germ. : mehr or mehr viel. 
By name : nominei ; Germ. : namentlicli. 
I give : ratt ; Welsh : rod ? ro ; Cornish : ro ; Bret : ro ; 

Send. : rav. 

I beware (really : I preserve) : bavarin ; Germ, : Ich 

bewahre. 
I cough : kufm. 

I say lies : mang-sagin ; Germ. : Liige sage. 

I sleep : khusin ; Welsh : kusg ; Bret. : kussket ; Kurdh. : 

khav ; Pers. : kus. 
One: yu (number). 

Two ; dueh ; Kurah ; Send. Pers. Pehlvi, 
yek euo yek yek. 
Kurdh, Pers., Send., Pehlvi 
du dn dud du 
Three : arte ; Dugor. : arta. 

Four : Tzupper : Kurdh : tchiahr ; Pers. : tcbikar ; Send, 

tcbetvere; Pehlvi: tchahar; Slav.: tcheteery. 
Five : Fons ; Kurdh : peng ; Pers. : pendu. 
Six: Akhsess; Kurdh: shesh; Pers.: shesh; Pehlvi: sese 
Seven : avd ; Pers. : heft ; Send. : liapte ; Pehlvi : baft. 
Eight : ast ; Pers. : besbt ; Pehlvi : asbt. 
Nine: farast. 
Ten: des. / 

Eleven : yu-dds ; — twelve : dua-des ; Pers. : dua-deb. 

Fifteen : fun-de's ; Pers. : pans-deb. 

Twenty : seds ; Kurdh : bist ; Pers. : bisst ; Send. : bisste. 



344 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



THE LANGUAGE OF THE TCHEKKESS. 



The Tcherkess, who call themselves " Adighe,'' inhabited 
once the western parts of the Caucasus and the Crimea. 
They are the Sychians of the Greeks. At - a later period 
they emigrated to the banks of the Kuban river and into 
Great and Little Kabardah. They called themselves also 
Kashakh, to which name the word " Cossack " (really 
" Kasack ") probably owes its origin. 

Their language constitutes a dialect of its own, having but 
a few roots in common with the Finnish, Yoghul and 
Ostyak tongues. 

The Tcherkess, Voghuls and Ostyaks belonged in olden 
times probably to one and the same tribe, which, however, 
at a very early period split itself up into divers branches, one 
of which was in all probability the Hunns. 

The pronunciation of their language offers extraordinary 
difficulties. Many letters require an almost inimitable click 
of the tongue, while the pronunciation of the vowels and 
diphthongs is subject to numerous modifications. 



EXEMPLA. 



Thou hast been 
He has been 



I have been 



ss'ye skhad 
Uo u skhad 
Arr skhad 



We have been 
You have been 
They have been 



Feh fye skhad 
Akher skhad 



Deh d'ye skhad 



I beat or strike 
Thou beatest 



Sse ss'ye 66 
U6 v'ye 66 
Arr ye 66 



He beats 
We beat 
You beat 



Deh d'ye 6o 
Feh fye 66 



They beat 



Akh'skker ye 66 



THE TCHERKESS LANGUAGE, 



PERFECTUM. 



1 have beaten 
Thou hast beaten 
He has beaten 
We have beaten 
Yon have beaten 
They have beaten 



Sse ss'ye voash 
Uo v'ye voash 
Arr ye voash 
Deh d'ye voash 
Feh f ye voash 
Akh'skher ye voash 



I shall beat 
Thon shalt beat 
He shall beat 
We shall beat 
Yon shall beat 
They shall beat 



FUTUKUM. 

Sse ss'ye vonsh 
Uo v'ye vonsh 
Arr ye vonsh 
Deh d'ye vonsh 
Feh fye vonsh 
Akh'skher ye vonsh 



INFINITIVUM. 

To beat Yevon 

IMPERATIVUM. 

Beat ! Yewo 



Part. Praes, 



Beating 



Yevdgah 



PR^S. PASSIV. 



I am being beaten 
Thou art being beaten 
He is being beaten 
We are being beaten 
You are being beaten 
They are being beaten 



Sse ke so vosher 

Uo ko vosher 

Abi ye vosher 

Deh ke do vosher 

Feh kho vosher 

Abi skhemme yevosher 



346 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



PERFECTUM. 



I have been beaten 
Thou hast been beaten 
He has been beaten 
We have been beaten 
You have been beaten 



Sse ke so voakhess 
Uo ko voakhess 
Abi ye voakhess 
Deh ke do voakhess 
Feh kho voakhess 



They have been beaten Abih skkemnie yevoakkess 



FUTURUM PASSIV. 



I shall be beaten 
Thou shalt be beaten 
He shall be beaten 
We shall be beaten 
You shall be beaten 
They shall be beaten 



Sse ke so voan'kkess 
Uo ko voan'kkess 
Abi ye voan'khess 
Deh ke do voan'khess 
Feh kho voan'khess 
Abih skkemme voan'khess 



Ex. — The adjective invariably stands after the sub- 
stantive. 

The handsome man (man handsome) s Tsoogh dakhe 
The handsome woman (woman handsome) Fiss dakhe 
The little dog (dog little) Hha tsook 

The little she-dog Habs tsook 

The black charger Skhakoh pfitze 

The black mare Skkibs pfitze 

Dog = hha; dogs=hhakke ; many dogs = hhakod. 

I am going home (I house to go) Sse unneh me sss'oko 

I stand on the hill (I hill on stand) 

I am riding on a horse (I horse on go 

I buy a horse (I horse buy) 

I buy ten horses (I horses ten buy) 



Whither art thou going ? 
Art thou well ? 
Give me bread ! 



Sse ask'ha me stetsh 
Sse shoogoh sss'oko 
Sse shell sss'osheg 
Sse shell pshee sss''- 

osheg 
Danau kora ? 
Pog ssish ? 
Tshaku kssat'ya ! 



THE ABASS LANGUAGE. 



347 



Be saluted ! 

What does that cost ? 

I love thee 



Upsoy ssh ! 
Sitti vassa ? 
Sse vor pfigoh sot- 



I beat the woman 
Thou beatest the dog 
He beats the horse 
Wilt thou have a pipe ? 



lagh 

Sse ss'ye voir Fiss'ine 
Uo v'ye vorr khamme 
Arr ye vorr shemme 
Luleh ukhee keh ? 



Sunday =T'ha makhua (God's day); Monday = Blish'ha ; 
Tuesday = Goubsh ; Wednesday = Berezhia ; Thursday = 
Makhuk; Friday =Merem (Mary's day); Saturday = 
Shabat. 

The week is (like Sunday) : Tha makhua. 



The Abass are of the same antiquity as the Tcherkess, but 
have never left their original country in the western moun- 
tains abutting on the Black Sea. Already in the year 550 
they became Christians. In 1023 they were defeated by 
the Romans under their king Georgi. Subsequently they 
became subjects to the Tchinggis-Khanides, and in 1400 
they served in the army of Temir Khan against the Soldan 
Bayasit. Their tribes are now inhabiting not alone the 
Black Sea coast, but also different localities on the northern 
side of the Caucasus, between the rivers Kuban, Kooma, 
and Malka. 

In the Abkhaszeti proper, from the Enguri northward, 
are living the following tribes : — 

1. The tribe Sads, on the Bagheti. 

2. The tribe Tshashi, on the Aghir, Moquis-tzgali and 

Marmar. 

3. The tribe Aibga, on the Koddoris and Dal. 

4. The tribe Akhshipse, from Sukhum-Kaleh up to the 

Kabeti 

5. The tribe Khirpisz, in the limestone hills on the 



THE LANGUAGE OF THE ABASS. 



upper part of the river Dal. 



348 



THE LAKD OF THE CZAR. 



All these tribes are called by the Tcherkess : Kush'-kha- 
sip Abassi; i e., Abass beyond the mountain. In Cis- 
Caucasia (north of the Caucasus), and south of the Couban, 
are living the following tribes of the Abass. Taking them 
according to their localities, from east to west, we find :— 



6. TheBakh 

The six tribes of little Abassah call themselves Tapanta ; 
the Tcherkess call them Baskekh ; the Tartars : Alti Kessek 
Abassi. 

Their language contains many Tcherkess words; the 
foundation of the two languages is, however, altogether 
different. 

Exempla of two Abass dialects. 
God never dies ; Man's life is short : 

{a.) Antsha adshal deghiman ; avhu inzirik sherdam 
verb. God death not ; man lives long not 

(b.) Antsha dashalsiss ; yinssra eishissp 
God death not ; man lives short 

(a.) Yan atshgun ditshagusoi ; kkhaza pkhuss bshedelgu: 
Mother children kisses ; man wife loves 

(b.) Yen itshgun deshagusse ; lakatsa abkhiss bissidelbi 
Mother children kisses ; man wife loves 

THE LANGUAGE OF THE SSUANI. 

This nation, one of the most ancient of the Caucasus, calls 
itself "Shnau." The Georgians, Imerethians, and Min- 



1. The Beshilbai 

2. The Midaveh 

3. The Barakai 

4. TheKasilbeg 

5. TheTshegreh 



8. The Ubukh 

9. TheBsubbeh 
10. TheAbasekh 



11. The Netkhquadsha. 



7. The Tubi 



THE SSUANI LANGUAGE. 



349 



grelians know them by the name of Ssvani, or Ssoni (their 
country Ssvaneti). 

Pliny says of them : " Flumen Cobum et Caucaso per 
Suanos miens." 

Ptolemy mentions them as : " Suano Colchi." They in- 
habit the land on the Zkheniss tzquali. They were Chris- 
tianized at an early period ; and even at the present day 
some ancient well-preserved churches may be met with in 
their mountains. These churches belong to the diocese of 
Letshkhoomi. They are a handsome race, but the dirtiest 
in the whole Caucasus. Their mountains are rich in splendid 
silver-lead, coj3per, and iron mineral. 

Exempla of their language. 

Foot=tshishg; Mingrelian: kutsh'khee 
Hand=shee; ,, khee 

Ear=ushkii; „ udshee 

Mouth = pil ; , , pits 

Georgian: piri 

Tongue— nin; Mingr. =nm&; Georg.—ena, 
Heart =gu; Tckerk and Abass.=gu; Mingr.=gwci 

„ Georg.=gi\li 
Beer = sura ; Tartar — ssra 
Sand = khum ; Tartar = ckum 



NUMBERS. 

Ssuanisk Mingrelian. Georgian, 

1. eshgu arti erti 

2. yeru shiri ori 

3. semi sumi ssami 

4. worshtkho ot'khi ott'khi 

5. vokhushi khuti khutl 

6. usgva apkh'shui ekhvssi 

7. tshgvid shquiti shveedi 

8. ara ruo rva 

9. tshkhara tshkhoro tskhra 



350 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



TARTAR LANGUAGES. 

They are divided into four tribes, viz. : — 
1st. The Nogai Tartars ; 

2nd. The Turkomans, or Ckisyl-bashi (i.e., Red-heads, 

on account of their red caps) ; 
3rd. The Bassjani or Tatar Kush'ha or Assi ; 
4th. The Ckoomyks on the north - eastern Caucasus. 

They are a most interesting tribe, and descendants of 

the once so renowned Khazares. 



EXEMPLA. 



ENGLISH. 


NOGAI. 


CKARATSHAI. 


CKOOMYK. 


CKISYLBAKH. 


I weep 


yele'iman 


yele'iman 


aghlarem 
yukhlarem 


aghlirem 


I sleep 


yukhlei'man 


yukhle'iman 


yukblirem 


I laugh 


kule'iman 


kule'iman 


gularem 


giilirem 


I drink 


itshaman 


itsheman 


itshemen 


itshirem 


I eat 


asheiman 


asheiman 


ashei'men 


yirem 


I see 


(ye'iman) 






goraman 


goraman 


goremen 


goriren 


I hear 


eshtaman 


angle'iman 


eshtemen 


eshidirem 


I go 


baraman 


ghetaman 


ghetemen 


ghedirem 




(ghetaman) 




I touch 


teiman 




tjemen 


daghiren 


I 


men 


men 


men 


men 


Thou 


szen 


szen 


szen 


szen 


He 


ol 


ol 


61 


6 


We 


biss 


biss 


biss 


biss 


You 


ssiss 


ssiss 


ssiss 


ssiss 


They 


ollar 


ollar 


6lar 


olar 


All 


barinda 


barinda 


barda 


hamessi 


One 


yanghiz 


yanghiz 


yalghiz 


yalghiz 


Man 


erkek 


ershek 


kishi 


kishi 


Wife 


katin 


katin 


khatin 


arvat 


Head 


bash 


bash 


bash 


bash 


Hand 


kol 


kol 


kol 


el 



EXEMPLA OF THE CKOOMYK LANGUAGE. 



As it is being spoken. 
God = Allah. 

Death without = adshalsiss. 



As it is icritten. 
God = Allah. 

Death without — adshalsiss. 



RUSSIAN WORDS REFERRING TO SANSCRIT ROOTS. 351 



EXEMPLA OF THE CKOOMYK LANGUAGE — continued. 



As it is being spoken. 
Man — Adam. 
Much == kup. 
Lives not = turmai. 

Mother = anassi. 
Her = onyng. 
Children = balalary. 
Kisses = ope. 



As it is written. 
Is = dur. 
Man = Adam. 
Life = yomyr. 
Little = as. 
Is = dur. 
Mother = anassi. 
Her = gendu. 
Children = avlyadlarin. 
Kisses = opeyur. 



In conclusion, we add a list of words of the Russian 
language referring to Sanskrit roots :— 



Sanskrit. 


English. 


Russian. 


Ada 


I eat 


yedu. 


adima 


one 


adin. 


aghni 


fire 


agon. 


akchi 


eye 


otshi. 


amisza 


meat 


m'yaso. 


ashooga 


dry 


sukhi. 


asti 


he is 


yestj. 


balia, valia 


great, grand 


veli. 


bharami 


I bear 


bremya. 


bra 


true 


pravo. 


bhrata 


brother 


bratt. 


bhroovo 


brow 


brovi. 


khomoor 


four 


tchetirye. 


da 


give 


dai. 


darana 


gift 


darenje. 


dhoogh 


air, smoke 


doogh. 


dhooma 


steam 


dym. 


dina 


day 


djen, 



352 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 





r r t'i fin <in 


-/.L-ttOOtU./t. 


nan TiJi'f/Yn 

U.dUJ_Ld LULL 


LU give 


dati 

UdLJ. 


uociaini 


I give 


aocLarj. 






lOttlCUft* 


UOLldbll 


.inou grvesu 


/-i Ann 4--1 

tiouati. 




jxuss, . Qayesn. 


rlnrlaH 

\AV7VAcTj LX 


-LLC ii-l-VOO 


flnciafi inf 

\X\J\X<X ILj IILJ % 






jxuss. . ciayet. 


rtalipnni 

Vloi-lC/J-LCll 


» Will all 




rlshiv?? 

vlOlll V <M 


life 

J. no 


7hi7n nf ylnvpfi 

ZiULXZiJLi Ul ZjIIIYVLJ. 


VA LI iV-tCU 


dan crlit pr 


rlnrl^h 

v^VJ LLO i_L» 


dui 


frvn 


dva. 


dvar 


opening ^ctoor j 


dver. 


pfot 


tin is 


pfn pfni" 

CLUj CLUL. 


gada 


going 


Knocij a. 


gum 


hill 


guid. 


gl CilijJdll 


•fr> foVp 
LU LdiS-t/ 


gldULLJ. 


gUUll 


W Ul u. 


O-ATTAf 

gUV Ul • 


nercia 


heart 


sera.se. 


UbUOillUgllc 


umuu ^Liidrridgc 


znt5niu.j ud. 


Valla 

Jvdlld 


B LUlltJ 


slrplfi {vein]?} 




1 bell 




kida 


to prostrate one- 


kidatj. 


lil feJLLI d 


lho L>iy 


KIlLbndLJ I LU Ulj. J 


AYUUlVd 


pnplr 


Trnlrnsiph 

Ji-UlvUBUil. 


1 £1 1 T Y\ Y\ O 

IcKillld 


ngnt 


lyegnKO. 


±UdU 


tic oil t; 


1JUUUUV ^lUYoJ. 


mada, madra 


mother 


matj. 


Tnnf' 


rlpflth 

U.CCI UJLX 


LllXlClCtjj oJJLiCJLLI. 


XXidOl 


moon 


TTipc lflfs! 
XllCoJ d LB. 


modoo 


honey 


mjod. 


niboo 


heaven 


njebo. 


nogo 


nail 


nogotj. 


nagiiaha 


naked 


naghi. 


nasa 


nose 


nos. 


nava 


new 


nov. 


ni 


no 


ni. 



SANSKRIT, ENGLISH, AND RUSSIAN WORDS. 353 



bansknt. 


English. 


Slav on. 


nisha 


low 


nisz. 


nicht 


rien 


nitchto. 


ogeonon 


the meal 


oozhin (supper). 


piote 


lie drinks 


piot. 


pria 


beloved 


priazen. 


ranha 


quick 


rano (early). 


sam 


together 


sam (himself). 


shashta 


six 


shestj. 


snvostri 


sister 


sestra. 


stannon 


constant 


stann (stand). 


stana 


dwelling 


stann (estab- 






lished). 


sua 


his 


svoy. 


soomana 


wheat 


semja, semenT 






(seed). 


sooni 


son 


syn. 


suonoh 


sound 


zvon. 


tacla 


father 


otets, (tjatja). 


tama 


black 


tma (darkness). 


tapa 


warmth (tepid) 


tjoplo. 


tapoghittin 


to heat 


topitj. 


tava 


thine 


tvoy. 


tomo 


black 


tjomno (dark). 


tonu 


fine 


tonki. 


tri 


three 


tri. 


tshatvar 


four 


tchetirje. 


tshesanta 


to cut the hair 


tchesan'ye 






(combing). 


tuvara 


door 


dver. 


oodroo 


otter 


vydra. 


veda 


science 


vedatj (to know). 


vighava 


widow 


vdova. 


vaihu 


wind 


veyatj (to blow). 


vahini 


war 


voyna. 


vartana 


keeper 


vratnik. 


vidara 


storm 


vetr (winds). 



354 THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 

Sanskrit. English. Slavon. 

vida manner vid. 

vish all vess. 

vishnu. victor vyshnee (the 

highest). 

yati he goes itti. 

yugon yoke eego. 



CHAPTER XXXIIL 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

The history of Russian Literature may be divided into the 
following periods : — 

1. The Period of Byzantine influence on Russian civili- 
zation and the gradual development of their na- 
tionality, from the ninth to the end of the seventeenth 
century, the seat of civilization and learning being 
at its commencement Kieff, afterwards Moscow. 

2. The Period of the Political and Social transformation 
of Russia and of the commencement of Western influ- 
ence, from 1675 to 1750, the seats of learning, &c. 
being Moscow, KiefT, and St. Petersburg. 

3. The Period of the predominating Western influence 
under Catharina and Alexander from 1750 to 1825, 
seats : St. Petersburg and Moscow. 

4. The fourth period is called by the Russians that of 
Russian Independence and Nationality extending to 
the present day. 

1st Period. — The first literary achievement in Russia was 
the translation of the Greek Bible into the Slavonic tongue 
by the Byzantine monks, " Method and Kyrill." Having 
acted for a short time as missionaries amongst the Bulga- 
rians, they had acquired a certain knowledge of the Slavonic 
language, and were therefore deemed fit pioneers of Chris- 
tianism and civilization in Russia. No doubt they were 
excellent, zealous messengers, who unhesitatingly proceeded 
to the tedious work of translation, They evidently were 

A A 2 



356 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



anxious that their new flocks should understand the Holy 
Word, that flowed from their mouths in prayer and adora- 
tion, as well as in preaching of the Gospel. They desired 
the multitude's getting- used to the same words, and there- 
fore deemed the existence of a written Eussian Bible and 
Church Service a matter of most urgent necessity. 

Kyrill began by writing a new alphabet, which he based 
mostly on the Greek. For Slavonic sounds, for which he 
found no equivalent in the Greek alphabet, he invented 
certain signs of his own. 

The alphabet once finished, he opened the Greek Text and 
translated it word for word into Slavonic, the words known 
to the translators being brought into exactly the same form 
and place which they occupied in the original. Those which 
they knew not how to express in Slavonic remained Greek, 
sometimes Slavonized, often unaltered. 

The natural consequence of this treatment of the language 
was, that its spirit, if not entirely destroyed, severely suf- 
fered, that the educated class turned from the stumbling 
jargon thus obtained with undisguised displeasure, that the 
common people, for whom it had so laboriously been written, 
understood it not at all, and lastly, that it proved for many 
centuries one of the most formidable obstacles to the pro- 
gress of linguistic and literary achievements in Russia. 

For henceforth it was declared the " Holy Book," and 
sanctioned for church use, and the " Holy Synod," at a 
later period, and after some revision resulting in the 
expulsion of some of the too grossly antinational elements, 
confirmed it as the unalterable text of the Russian Church. 
Thus it remains to this day the voice of the church, and is 
taught in all schools collaterally with the Russian language. 

The Russian people became in this manner possessed of 
two languages: each of which following its own bent, the 
one, the dead-born language of the church and consequently 
of learning and science, remained for a long period the only 
organ by which the few distinguished spirits found vent in 
clerical writings and chronicles; while the other, the real 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



357 



tongue of the people, by a direful fatality had died a moral 
death, from which it took centuries to resuscitate it. 

The entire literary life of the Russian nation of this period, 
comprising nearly 800 years, reduces itself to the following 
scanty mementoes : — 

1. The Ostromirovo Evangelium, containing the oldest 
text of Kyrill's translation. 

2. The venerable Monk Nestor's Chronicles and Cos- 
mography throwing the first rays of light on Russian 
History, and therefore justly and highly reverenced 
by all writers of history. 

3. The lyrico-epic poem: " Ivor's campaign against the 
wild Polovz" (about a.d. 1200), the first poetical pro- 
duction known in the Slavonic language. 

The manuscript, long in the possession of Count Mussin- 
Pushkin, was burnt in Moscow in 1812. 

4. Chronicles of the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
homilies, legends of the old fathers of the church 
and monastic records. 

5. Books of travels, of which the most remarkable are 
those of the merchant Nikitin to India in the year 
1450, and of Kotoshin through Russia. 

6. An infinity of dogmatical sermons. 

7. An extensive collection of popular tales and poems. 

Saeharoff, a Russian Archaeologist of the present century, 
gives a full account of the legends of the Russian people. 
He tells us of more than one hundred different kinds 
of sorcery, black art, witchcraft, fortune-telling, dream 
interpreting, &c, for which many objects served as media, 
even such as needles, Easter eggs, &c. He describes 36 
popular games, and at last shows us a rich collection of 
popular lore, such as wedding-, parting-, soldier-, robber-, 
Cossack-, cradle-, and other songs. 

The following institutions were established during this 
period : — 



358 



THE LAND OF THE CZAE. 



In 1553. The first printing press. 

In 1564 appeared for the first time in print some books 

of a Slavonic Bible. 
In 1588. The first seminary of preachers in Kieff. 
In 1590 appeared the first Slavonic- Greek grammar. 
In 1627 the first chart and geographical description of 

Russia. 

In 1644 began the first collection of legal codes of Russia. 

Having endeavoured to vindicate Russian genius in the 
presence of so meagre a list of literary results by pointing out 
to the reader the jiernicious effect of defective foreign teaching 
enforced by means of superstitious reverence, however well 
meant and dictated by pious impulses it may have been, we 
now come to the description of other and ruder causes, 
that lent a powerful hand to the fettering of all spiritual 
advance of the Russian people at that period. 

Notwithstanding Byzantine influence, and in despite of the 
♦ endless sufferings caused by the everlasting contentions and 
wars of their Princes, who, only pursuing their own selfish 
interests, mercilessly trampled their own subjects under foot ; 
in despite of unruly tribes of heathens, who ever now and 
then swept with fire and sword over one or the other of the 
Russian provinces, effacing in their ruthless course all traces 
of civilization that may have gradually sprung up here and 
there ; in the face of all this the spirit of the nation might 
have shook itself free at an earlier hour, and soared into 
loftier regions, had not the greatest of disasters that Russia 
has ever experienced, namely, the Mongolian invasion and 
reign of terror, fallen upon that unhappy country. 

At a time when in western Europe the harp of the 
troubadour delighted happy homesteads, when the lays of 
Ossian, the Nibelungen, the songs of Blonclel, of Walther 
von der Vogelweide, of Wolfram von Eschenbach charmed 
palace and cot, the wild hordes of Tshinggiskhan and Bati 
were raging in the vitals of Russia. For upwards of two 
centuries they persistently made war on all that resembled 



EUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



359 



civilization ; they destroyed the towns, ruined the wealth of 
the country, and trod into the mire every germ of spiritual 
culture. 

And not the Tartars alone were the cause of all these, 
devastations, but other neighbours, and even their own 
princes, seemed to vie with each other in reducing the 
country to a state of utter inanity, dilapidation, poverty and 
bodily and mental misery. Owing to this invasion we find 
not a few Tartar words henceforth mixed up with the ori- 
ginal Slavonic. Under such circumstances the poetic spirit 
of the nation remained hidden under a black cloud, and 
only in the second half of the fourteenth century it feebly 
ventured to lift the pall that had so long lain on it. The 
language was still that of the Church, full of heavy words, 
metaphors and allegories, but already mixed with the 
popular tongue, and although on the whole an unpleasing, 
clumsy compound, sometimes uttering childish absurdities, 
yet shadowing forth as it were in the tottering steps of the 
child the future greatness of the adult. 

This time was principally prolific in popular poetry, and 
nothing could be simpler than the production of these songs. 

Wherever a company met it was at once proposed to sing 
a song (of course improvised). A circle was formed and 
one began by singing one verse, upon which the chorus, 
repeating the last words, sometimes responded by the word : 
Hail ! Upon this a second sang a verse, and so on. 

For instance, a company has agreed to sing in honour of 
the new bread or harvest. 



The First begins : 
,, Second continues 
„ Third 

Fourth 
„ Fifth 

„ sath 

Seventh ., 
„ Eighth 



Afore all to God in Heaven — Hail ! . . 

And to our Czar on earth— Hail ! 

That his hair never whiten with age may ! . 

And his colour'd garment ne'er tear nor fray ! 

And his fiery steed, the trusty, may it never 
run away ! . . . . . . 

His faithful servants may they never de- 
generate ! 

And that in holy Russia all evil terminate ! 

May the sun ever shine, the wonderful ! 



Chorus. 
Hail! 
Hail ! 
Hail ! 
Hail ! 

Hail ! 

Hail ! 
Hail ! 
Hail ! 



360 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The Ninth continues 



Tenth 



Eleventh 



Chorus. 

And the Czarina's golden purse remain for 
ever full ! ...... Hail / 

May the big streams never tarry, 

Our glory to the seas to carry ! . . . Hail ! 

All the little rivers he for the mill ! . . Hail ! 



Chorus. — For this ditty we sing to the bread ! 

It is devoted to bread and its praise ! 
A comfort to all aged and weak ! . 
And to be respected by the young ! . 



Hail ! 
Hail! 
Hail ! 
Hail! 



The Epos : Ivor's campaign against the Polovz, by an 
unknown poet of the twelfth century, probably in the style 
of the old, unfortunately to us lost legends of Russia, is a 
poem distinguished for its style, beautiful handling of lan- 
guage, and imagery, bold, full of feeling, graceful, a brilliant 
memento of the early spiritual culture of Russia. 

Legends of a more recent style : of the celebrated, brave 
knight Ilija, the Muromese and the Robber Nightingale ; 
of Filipat and Maxim, and their exploits; of the heroes 
Bowa, Karolevish, and the beautiful king's daughter, Drush- 
nevna, and many others belong to this period. 

Vladimir the Great was to the Russian recorder and 
minstrel much the same what King Arthur was to the 
English ; and the heroes Dobrynga, Nikititch, and others 
might by all accounts have been worthy to measure swords 
with Lancelot and his companions. 

As regards the legend itself and the way it is told, 
however, it must be said, that it cannot bear comparison 
with similar writings of other nations. 

A peculiarity of the Russian legends is the quaint ideas 
recurring continually in the same, the ever predominating 
number " three," and the exclusive use of patronymics. 
Thus, the fathers usually have three sons, the heroes and 
knights-errant ride through three times nine empires, the 
bravest are always thirty-three years old, they achieve their 
deeds only on the third attempt, &c. Aged parents have sons 
bestowed upon them, but by the particular grace of God ; these 
do not grow by years, but by days and hours. Man and horse 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



361 



seem to form but one being ; the knight is powerless till lie 
finds the steed appointed him, which again suffers no one to 
ride her but the knight for whose services she is destined. 

2nd Period. — This period began with Peter the Great 
(1689 — 1725), one of the first acts of whose reign was a 
reformation of the Russian Grammar, to which he himself 
supplied a new and simplified alphabet, as a basis for which 
he availed himself of the Latin one. It contains thirty-six 
letters, or rather thirty-five, and exists to this clay. 

Owing to Peter's admiration for foreign advancement and 
institutions his reign saw many foreign words introduced 
into the Russian language, so all the words referring to 
war, toilet, theatre, and kitchen are mostly French. Those 
signifying matters of art, science, business, and music are 
Italian. Marine and navy affairs English and Dutch, and 
those treating of domestic institutions, mining, and military 
matters, German. 

The same monarch founded schools on the Leibnitz 
pattern, and granted a monopoly for the printing of Russian 
works to the Amsterdam printer and publisher, Tessing. 

The first poet of his time was Kantemir (a.d. 1744), 
son of the Hospodar of Moldavia and ambassador at Paris. 
His principal poems are those in which he satirises the 
great Russian vices, " gambling and intemperance." 

The Church literature of this time partook more of the 
polemic than the dogmatic, while the secular writings were 
almost excusively limited to History (Tatishtsheff ). 

The Drama began to give the first signs of life principally 
in representations of the Mysteries. 

In 1713 the first printing-press was set up in St. Peters- 
burg. 

During the reign of the bigoted and incapable Czarina 
Elizabeth (1741-61) the literary movement proved rather 
retrograde than progressing. 

In this time appeared, however, on the literary horizon 
the great poet and " savant" Lomonosov (1711-65), the son 
of a poor peasant of Denissovski, near Archangelsk. The 



362 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



pope of his village having bestowed on him all the teaching 
of reading and writing of which he himself was capable, he 
put his whole library, consisting of a Prayer-book, a Slavonic 
Grammar, and an Arithmetic, at the disposal of his eager 
pupil, who, for want of other resources, learnt the same by 
heart. Thus it came that he knew the Slavonic grammar 
and language better than his preceptor, while at the same 
time he was thoroughly familiar with the popular tongue, a 
circumstance of great promise to his country, for only from 
a master proficient in both could Russia expect salvation. 
And gloriously was that promise fulfilled ! Lo?nonosov, 
lashed by his thirst for knowledge, escaped from his pa- 
ternal village, and after many adventures arrived in Moscow, 
where he was admitted to a seminary. Soon distinguishing 
himself by his genius and untiring diligence, he was, in 
1734, by way of reward of his endeavours, sent at the 
expense of the Crown to Germany, where he studied in 
Marburg, under Wolff, Philosophy and the Natural Sciences. 
His life at Marburg, his marriage with the daughter of his 
poor landlord, his poverty, and his resolution to improve 
matters by a grand stroke, beginning by a clandestine flight 
from his wretched hearth, his Odyssean-like rovings and ad- 
ventures, and final desertion from King Frederick William's 
guards, who had kidnapped him, and his final flight to 
Holland and St. Petersburg, where he lived for a long time, 
a member of the Imperial Academy, on an income too paltry 
to permit of his sending for his wife and family ; the enter- 
prising affection of his excellent spouse, who at last managed 
to join him with her little brood, the tearful delight of the poor, 
sensuous fellow on meeting a°*ain with his dear ones after so 
long a separation, would furnish material for as interesting 
and heart-stirring a romance as ever has been written. 

Like Lessing in Germany, so he, in his native land, 
developed a most happy activity. He wrote in the living- 
language of the people, using it with creative power for the 
eloquent expression of his ideas. 

In the grammar he wrote he unfortunately followed the 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



363 



Latin construction, thus throwing a new obstacle in the way 
of the free and independent development of the language. 
But the road was now clearer and permitting of bolder 
strides ! In rapid succession he published work after work. 
They were mostly treating of scientific subjects, and while they 
served as models of scientific prose, they at the same time 
introduced science itself into Russia, thus giving to the 
spirit of study and enterprise of the young generation a firm 
and clear aim. The appearance in print of his Odes, in 
which he first employed the tonic accent, was the signal to 
loud, enthusiastic rejoicings throughout the whole empire, 
that never before had heard such verses, such new sounds of 
harmony in its own native tongue. 

However deficient as poet, in the proper sense of the 
word, Lomonosov is said to have been, it can never be 
denied that his sacred Odes breathe forth true, exquisite 
inspiration, and that he was the father of the modern 
Russian prose. 

His contemporaries were Tredjakovski, the translator of 
Fenelon's Telemachus (otherwise of little account), and 
Sumorokov, the author of many tragedies, some of them 
of considerable merit, somewhat in the style of Corneille, 
Racine, Moliere. He became manager of the first theatre 
(founded 1756) in St. Petersburg. 

In the year 1755, Elizabeth founded the University of 
Moscow. 

TWO VERSES OF LOMONOSOV'S ODE : Evening Reflections on 
the Majesty of God, on seeing the great Northern Lights. 

Now day conceals her face and darkness fills 

The field, the forest with the shades of night ; 

The gloomy clonds are gathering round the hills, 

Yeiling the last ray of the lingering light. 

The abyss of heaven appears — the stars are kindling round ; 

Who ? who can count those stars ? who that abyss can sound 

Just as a sand 'whelm'd in the infinite sea ; 

A ray the frozen iceberg sends to heaven ; 

A feather in the fierce flame's majesty ; 

A mote, by midnight's madden' d whirlwind driven, 

Am I, 'midst this parade ; an atom, less than nought, 

Lost and o'erpower'd by the gigantic thought. 



364 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



3rd Period. — Catharine and Alexander. Seat of culture, 
St. Petersburg and Moscow. Catharine II. (1762—96), the 
enthusiastic protectress of fine arts and science, herself 
authoress of divers popular works, gave at once a new 
and powerful impetus to the progress of literature. She 
founded schools (civil and military), gymnasia, ladies' col- 
leges, surgical and other scientific institutions. By special 
Ukas she gave full liberty regarding the establishment of 
typograjDhical establishments, created public libraries and 
popular theatres. 

The gigantic monument of Peter the Great, on the Isaac's 
Square at St. Petersburg, is her work, in witness whereof 
the inscription : 

" Petro Primo — Catharina Seconda." 

The great poet of her reign is Derzhavin (Gabriel 
Eomanovitch), who began his career as soldier in the Im- 
perial Body Guards. 

On Catharina's coronation day, he stood a sentinel at the 
portal of the Imperial Palace, where he beheld his Czarina 
in all the splendour of youthful beauty, in the blaze of the 
coronation attire, and surrounded by a scarcely less brilliant 
cortege. His poet's soul fired by the magnificent sight, he 
at the instant of his release from duty flew to his solitary 
dwelling, and in the impassionate strain of inspiration wrote 
his grand poem : " Feliza, the Goddess of Bliss, instructing 
Prince Chlor in the Art of Governing." In obedience to 
the advice of his friends, who deemed its publication not 
expedient for fear of ruinous consequences to the author 
from the vindictiveness of the courtiers, whose foibles the 
poem had not by any means spared, he did not publish it 
then, nor for a long time afterwards, although it continued 
to delight a chosen but limited circle of friends and 
admirers. 

Years elapsed before the moment arrived that should 
bring this gem to light. But it did come, and in the fol- 
lowing manner : — Catharina having issued a new periodical, 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



365 



of which she was editress, she stated to the Countess Dash- 
koff her anxious wish of opening the first number by some 
extraordinary production of Russian genius. The Countess 
having heard through a friend, an admirer of Derzhavin, of 
the poet's " Feliza," insisted on its being put into her hands 
that very day. A hasty glance sufficed to throw her into 
ecstasies ; but there was no time for more, for the poem had 
to be printed forthwith in order to be ready for the Czarina's 
breakfast- table on the ensuing morning. The printer proved 
punctual, and the Countess had the satisfaction of seeing 
the Czarina with the periodical in her hand. Her breathless 
watch in the adjoining room was soon over, for a violent 
peal of the Empress's bell called her to her Sovereign, whom 
she found in a passion of tears. 

Folding her in a fervent, grateful embrace, Catharine 
exclaimed, " Oh, name him to me, the man who so com- 
pletely has seen through me, who so deeply has read in my 
inmost soul my sincere longing to be a blessing to my 
country! Oh, name him to me, that his brightness may 
henceforth shed a glorious light on my Court ! " 

The poem had been inserted into the periodical under the 
title, " Ode to the Kirghiz-Kaissak Princess 4 Feliza,' by 
a Mursa (a Tartar Prince), who has been for a long time living 
at Moscow, but is now on business at St. Petersburg." 

In a dingy government office, midst dusty prosy acts, 
stood, despatching packets and letters, which he had just 
sealed, the once brilliant Guardsman — now a poor, salaried 
clerk. 

There enters at this moment a special messenger, who 
hands him a sealed parcel, with the address : " From 
Orenburg. — The Kirghiz Princess to the Mursa." The 
parcel contains an autograph letter of the Empress (warmly 
thanking and naming him Councillor of the Court), the 
portrait of the august donoress set in diamonds, a golden 
snuff-box with brilliants, and 500 ducats in money. 

From this moment Derzhavin lived no more in obscurity, 
but held henceforth some of the highest posts of honour at 



366 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



the Court — such as, Minister of Finance, of the Foreign 
Office, and Justice ; but he was, before all, the first lyric 
poet of his time, who, cleansing the Kussian language of all 
foreign elements, infused instead into it a power and elegance 
which have only recently been surpassed. With him sprang 
up the real national poetry, and grafted on it have since 
become many noble shoots. In the northern nosegay hence- 
forth reigns the eternal spring, whose sweetly scented 
blossoms are wafted to us annually in ever-increasing 
showers. In Derzhavin's works we hear the rustling of the 
wings of a true poet's spirit, whose sphere is governed by 
three principal factors; viz., the glorification of Catharina 
and of her government ; reflections on the supernatural ; and 
praise of a free, serene enjoyment of life. That he to a 
certain extent, however, was under the influence of his time, 
is shown by a casual indulgence in high-stepping rhetoric, 
imagery, and learned digressions by which he at times 
assails what in other instances he upholds. His Ode, 
"God" (1780), is one of the most sublime poems ever 
written. He has been suspected of having taken his inspi- 
ration from Goethe's "Faust;" but this can hardly be, as 
that great work was not completed till the year 1800, although 
some scenes from it had appeared already in 1775, the witches 
kitchen in 1790, and the rest in 1797—1800. 

Translated into Chinese and Japanese, the Emperors of 
Ihe two respective countries had the poem " God " hung up 
on golden tablets in their palaces at Pekin and Jeddo. The 
following translation is by Sir John Bowring : — - 

GOD ! 

O Thou eternal One ! whose presence bright 
All space doth occupy, all motion guides ; 
Unchanged through time's all- devastating flight 
Thou only God ! There is no God besides ! 
Being above all beings ! Three in One ! 
Whom none can comprehend and none explore ; 
Who fill'st existence with Thyself alone : 
Embracing all — supporting— ruling o'er, — 
Being, whom we call God, and know no more ! 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



In its sublime research, philosophy 

May measure out the Ocean deep — may count 

The sands, or the sun's rays— but God ! for Thee 

There is no weight nor measure ; none can mount 

Up to Thy mysteries ; Reason's brightest spark, 

Though kindled by Thy light, in vain would try 

To trace Thy counsels, infinite and dark ; 

And thought is lost, ere thought can soar so high, 

Even like past moments in eternity. 

Thou from primaeval nothingness didst call 

First chaos, then existence ; Lord ! on Thee 

Eternity had its foundation : all 

Sprung forth from Thee — of light, joy, harmony, 

Sole origin ; all life, all beauty Thine. 

Thy word created all, and doth create ; 

Thy splendour fills all space with rays divine ! 

Thou art, and wert, and shalt be ! Glorious ! Great 

Light-giving, life -sustaining Potentate ! 

Thy chains the unmeasured Universe surround : 

Upheld by Thee — by Thee inspired with breath ! 

Thou the beginning with the end hast bound, 

And beautifully mingled life and death ! 

As sparks mount upwards from the fiery blaze, 

So suns are born — so worlds spring forth from Thee, 

And as the spangles in the sunny rays 

Shine round the silver snow, the pageantry 

Of Heaven's bright army glitters in Thy praise ! 

A million torches lighted by Thy hand 
Wander unwearied through the blue abyss ; 
They own Thy power, accomplish Thy command ; 
All gay with life, all eloquent with bliss — 
What shall we call them ? Piles of crystal light — 
A glorious company of golden streams — 
Lamps of celestial ether burning bright — 
Suns lighting systems with their joyous beams? 
But Thou to these art as the noon to night. 

Yes ! as a drop of water in the sea, 

All this magnificence in Thee is lost : 

What are ten thousand worlds compared to thee ? 

And what am I, then ? Heaven's unnumber'd host, 

Though multiplied by myriads and array' d 

In all the glory of sublimest thought, 

Is but an atom in the balance weigh'd 

Against Thy greatness ; is a cypher brought 

Against infinity ! What am I, then ? Nought ! 



368 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Nought ! But the effluence of Thy light divine, 

Pervading worlds, hath reached my bosom too ; 

Yes ! in my spirit does Thy spirit shine, 

As shines the sunbeam in a drop of dew. 

Nought ! but I live, and on Hope's pinions fly 

Eager towards Thy presence ; for in Thee 

I live, and breathe, and dwell ; aspiring high, 

Even to the throne of Thy divinity. 

I am, God ! and surely Thou must be ! 

Thou art ! directing, guiding all, Thou art ! 
Direct my understanding then to Thee ; 
Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart ; 
Though but an atom 'midst immensity, 
Still I am something fashion'd by Thy hand ! 
I hold a middle rank 'twixt heaven and earth, 
On the last verge of mortal being stand, 
Close to the realms where angels have their birth, 
Just on the boundaries of the spirit land ! 

The chain of being is complete in me ; 

In me is matter's last gradation lost, 

And the next step is Spirit — Deity ! 

I can command the lightning, and am dust ! 

A monarch, and a slave ; a worm, a God ! 

"Whence came I here, and how ? so marvellously 

Constructed and conceived ? Unknown ! this clod 

Lives surely through some higher energy ; 

Eor from itself alone it could not be ! 

Creator, yes ! Thy wisdom and Thy word 
Created me ! Thou source of life and good ! 
Thou spirit of my spirit, and my Lord ! 
Thy light, Thy love, in their bright plenitude, 
Fill'd me with an immortal soul, to spring 
O'er the abyss of Death, and bade it wear 
The garments of eternal day, and wing 
Its heavenly flight beyond this little sphere, 
Even to its source — to Thee ! its Author there. 

thoughts ineffable ! visions blest ! 
Though worthless our conceptions all of Thee, 
Yet shall Thy shadowed image fill our breast, 
And waft its homage to Thy Deity. 
God ! thus alone my lowly thoughts can soar, 
Thus seek Thy presence — Being, wise and good ! 
'Midst Thy vast works admire, obey, adore, 
And when the tongue is eloquent no more, 
The soul shall speak in tears of gratitude ! 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE, 



369 



Allied to Derzhaxin were : — 

Oserov, by whom we have several tragedies. 

Von Wisin, Knazknin, Kapnist, representing the true 
national comedy. 

Bogdanovick and K/ieraskov, epic poets of mark ; and the 
charming fable writer Ckemnitzer, who has has been called 
the second Lafontaine, but who probably surpasses the latter 
in several respects. He was a man full of amiable eccen- 
tricities, and much beloved by all that knew him. 

History and Science formed the subjects to the productions 
of Novikoff, Schlozer, Miiller, and Boltin, all of high value ; 
and numerous expeditions to Kamtchatka, the Northern and 
Southern Polar Seas, to China and other distant countries, 
furnished ample material for scientific research and record. 

The diplomatic style of this epoch was quite peculiar 
to itself. 

Of Ckemnitzer 's (Ivan Ivanovich) fables I can, for want of 
space, only quote the following short one, translated by Sir 
J ohn Bowring : — 

THE WAGGONS. 

I saw a long, long train 

Of many a loaded, lumbering wain ; 

And one there was of most gigantic size, 

It look'd an elephant amidst a swarm of flies ; 

It roll'd so proudly that a passenger 

Curiously asked, "Now, what may that contain ? " 

"Nothing hut bladders, sir ! " 

Such masses (misnamed men !) are little rare, 

Inflated, bullying, proud, and full of — air ! 

Inimitable in his simplicity of style and language, Chem- 
nitzer was unknown to many of his contemporaries. He did 
not belong to their age. 

Bogdanovich was long without a rival as far as simplicity 
and lightness are concerned. 

Knazhnin's tragedies are distinguished from those of 
Sumorokov by superior regularity, roundness, and aptitude. 
The style of his Psyche (Duzhenka) is a remarkable pheno- 
menon of the age in which it was written. 

B B 



370 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The Russian Academy performed a truly great work in 
the production of the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian 
language. 

The Academician Miiller commenced the first literary 
journal in Russia, entitled, " Monthly Essays ; Useful and 
Entertaining." 

In 1759 Lamarokov published the u Industrious Bee," 
1756, the " Moscow News;" and in 1762, Kheraskov 
started at Moscow the " Hours of Leisure." 

The same time brought Petrov's " Heroic Exploits of the 
First Turkish War ; " Kheraskov's Epic Poems ; Bogdano- 
vich's poem in the romantic style ; and Knazhnin's tragedies 
appeared. 

All these authors were warmed by the rays of the genial 
sun of Derzhavin ; they no longer wrote exclusively for the 
Court, as under Elizabeth, for the Court now showed itself 
anxious to identify the glory of the people with its own. At 
this period Russian authors enter the fertile spring of their 
birth, their number increasing *so vastly that it becomes 
impossible for the limits of this work to treat of them 
singly. 

The most important writers of this period are : — 
Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Krinovsky, Setzhenov, Popovsky, 
Konissky, Levzhin, Bratanovsky, Levanda, Ielagin, Kheras- 
kov, Petrov, Barkov, Bogdanovich, Chemnitzer, Van Wisin, 
Derzhavin, Kapnist, Kostrov, Pleshtshejeff, Knazhnin, 
Neledinsky Meledsky, Bobrov, Dolgoruki, Khvostov, Miiller, 
Shtsherbatov, Boltin, Golikov, Schlozer, Novikov. 

What Peter I. and Catharine II. had begun, was worthily 
continued by the humane, enlightened, and high-minded 
Czar Alexander I. To his earnest zeal for the true 
enlightenment of his people, the Russian nation is beholden 
for the establishment of the " educational bureau," to which 
he entrusted the chief superintendence of all places of learn- 
ing with the exception of the clerical, military, and mining 
schools and the seminaries, which were established under the 
especial direction of Maria Feodorovna. 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



371 



Immediately on its creation this bureau adopted a general 
system of education throughout Russia, which was crowned 
with the highest success. By the fundamental laws of this 
system, Russia was divided into the following six depart- 
ments, viz.: — 

1. Tfyat of Moscow, to which belong the governments of 
Moscow, Tver, Kaluga, Vologda, Jarosslav, Vladimir, 

' Tula and Smolensk. 

2. That of St. Petersburg with the governments of 
St. Petersburg, Olonets, Archangel, Novgorod and 
Pskov. 

3. That of Kharkov, governments Slobodsk, Ukraine, 
Tshernigov, Poltava, KiefT, Kursk, Orel, Voronezh, 
Kherson, Tauride, and the lands of the people of 
the Don. 

4. That of Dorpat and governments of Courland, 
Esthonia, and Livonia. 

5. That of Kasan with the governments of Kasan, Pensa, 
Simbirsk, Neezhegorod, Astrachan, Perm, Vjatka, 
Tobolsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, Tambov, Saratov, and the 
Caucasus. 

6. That of Vilna with the governments of Vilna, 
Grodno, Minsk, Mogileff, Vitepsk, Volhynia, Podolia 
and Bialystok. 

For each of these departments a university was appointed, 
to every government town a lyceum, to every district town a 
distinct school, and to every hamlet a parish school. The 
supervision of each district was confided to a curator, and 
the general superintendence of all these together was given 
to the directory of the head school. 

The charter of Kharkov University, dated November 4, 
1804. The nobility subscribed for the same 400,000 roubles. 
It was opened on the 17th January, 1805, that of Kasan on 
the 5th July, 1814, that of St. Petersburg on the 8th Feb. 
1819. 



372 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Some of the nobles, like Demidoff, Besborodko, and others, 
distinguished themselves on this occasion by their extra- 
ordinary zeal and generosity. 

A thirst for knowledge had fallen on the people, and the 
ardent desire of the educated class to provide permanent 
institutions for the enlightenment of their poorer countrymen 
led to the foundation of an astounding number of scientific 
and literary societies and clubs. 

Notwithstanding, however, the great talents, who then 
wrote in the Russian tongue, the latter moved still in the 
trammels of the different influences amply elucidated in the 
above pages. In the last but one decennary of the 18th 
century the didactic and easy style of Russian prose began to 
be current among the people of Moscow, whose conver- 
sational language was remarkably pure and correct. At 
this period, when all the defects of the language, which had 
hitherto prevailed, existed still, and after many ineffectual 
attempts had been made to improve it, and to get rid at 
once of the roughness of the common dialect and the rhetoric 
style of the book language, Karamsin appeared. Karamsin 
(Nikolaj Mikhailovich), Imperial Russian historiographer, 
councillor of state, knight, member of several learned socie- 
ties, was born at Simbirsk on the 1st December, 1765. He 
received his education at Moscow, where he was indoors 
pupil of Prof. Sckaden, and where he later finished his 
studies at the University. He then served some years in 
the guards, and after quitting the service travelled for two 
years through western and southern Europe. On his return 
he settled at Moscow. 

1803 he was made historiographer of the Russian empire. 

1804 he received the title of Aulic councillor. 
1810 the order of St. Vladimir, third class. 
1812 he was named Collegiate Councillor. 

1816, on his presenting the first 8 volumes of his 
Russian history to Alexander, the Czar appointed 
him Councillor of State, and decorated him with the 
order of St. Ann, first class. 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



373 



Karamsin preferring the French and English construction 
to the long Latin and German periods with which the 
Russian language had hitherto been encumbered, he gave to 
his countrymen in the Moscow Journal the first taste ot 
the light, agreeable, and accurate language it had so long 
desired in vain, and which was well fitted to convey the 
common popular expressions, as well as to follow the 
logical constructions of the most polished European 
languages. 

Himself of Franco-Kussian education, it was even he 
who put a complete stop to the Franco- Slavonic Pseudo- 
classicism. 

His most distinguished allies were Muravyev and Poclshi- 
valov, but his success created an immense crowd of imitators, 
who proved more formidable to him than his bitterest 
enemies and opponents. They copied only his weak side, 
and exaggerated his faults. They introduced barefaced 
Gallicisms and exhibited whole lines of French words in 
pages printed in the Russian character. At this conjuncture 
1802) appeared Shishkov's book " Upon the Old and New 
Style of the Russian Language," in which he hotly attacked 
this injurious fashion, and exposed all the ridiculous and 
unsuitable novelties with which the writers of the time, in 
their attempts to follow Karamsin, disfigured the language. 

Two regular parties arrayed themselves amongst the 
Russians, viz., that of Moscow following Karamsin, and 
that of St. Petersburg, which advocated at once the old style 
of construction and the newly -coined words. Hostilities 
were on both sides violent and incessant, but Karamsin, and 
his style remained victorious in the end, and the latter, after 
being purified of the spots with which Karamsin's imitators 
had corrupted it, assumed a now undisputed pre-eminence 
in the Russian language. 

After 1816 Karamsin lived at St. Petersburg, where he 
died on the 3rd June, 1826, in the Taurian Palace. The 
collection of his works contains : — 1st. Lyrical poems ; 2nd. 
Letters of a Russian Traveller ; 3rd. Tales: Poor Elizabeth, 



374 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



The Beautiful Princess, The Fortunate Dwarf, Julie, The 
Impenetrable Forest, Natalia, Sierra Morena, the Island 
Bornholm and Marva Posadnidza, or the Subjugation of 
Novgorod, which last is considered the best; 4th. Historical 
Panegyrics on Catharine II. ; 5th. Discourse on Fortune ; 
6th. Upon Bogdanovich ; 7th. Histor. Fragments on the 
Insurrection of Moscow under Alexej Mikhailovich, The Pan- 
theon of Russ. Authors, Antiquities of Russia, Historical 
Recollections and Remarks on Journey to Monastery Troit- 
ska ; 8th. Discourses at the Meeting of the Russian Academy. 
His smaller prose compositions are to be found in the journals 
edited by him. In Moscow he was editor of — 1st. The 
" Moscow Journal;" 2nd. "Aglaia;" 3rd. "Aonides;" 
4th. " Pantheon of Foreign Belles-Lettres ;" 5th. "European 
Messenger ; " of many translations ; but his crowning work 
was his " History of the Russian Empire," at which he 
wrote twenty years, from 1803 to 1823. A glorious memento 
of the author's genius, it is at the same time an eloquent 
proof of the love of truth displayed by the high-minded Alex- 
ander. The works of Karamsin had a most extraordinary 
influence upon his contemporaries. The fair sex of Russia 
also were attracted and stimulated to occupy themselves 
with the elegant literature of their country, and thus laid 
the foundation for the cultivated and improved taste of the 
present age. 

His greatest opponent was, as already said, Shiskkov, who 
translated Schiller's " Wallenstein," Tiek's "Fortunat," 
Raupack's " Princes Khovanskj," but these works have 
now become obsolete. 

Shukovsky, on the other hand, translated to perfection 
Schiller, Goethe, Uhland, Riickert, and Homer's " Odyssee." 

Gnddish published a translation of the " Iliade." 

Bafyuzkkov and Raitsch translated Dante, Ariosto, Pe- 
trarca, and Tasso; but the best translation of Goethe's 
" Faust " we owe Vronzken/w, who moreover translated 
"Macbeth," "Hamlet," and Byron's "Manfred." 

Krllov's Fables are perhaps the best that ever were written. 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



375 



No one ever surpassed him as regards productiveness and 
nationality. 

Dmitrijev wrote Eussian verse in narrative and didactic 
form. His tales, fables, satires, and songs show the possi- 
bility of giving to Russian poetry all the lightness and 
neatness of the French tongue. The elevation, power, the 
lively and happy colouring in Oserqff^s tragedies, the deli- 
cacy and feeling in Shukovsky's poems, the elegiac style, 
dignity of conception, and accurate delineation of nature 
exhibited in Bat'yuzhkov's works, the simplicity, natural 
turn, and wit in the fables of Krilov — all these found material 
for the expression in the Russian language. 

Gncidich, Shukovsky, and Voyeikov, introduced successfully 
the Greek meter. Honourable mention deserve the labours 
of Vostakov, Sokolov, Born, Nikolsky, Heim, Lincle, Vater, 
Tappe, Puchmaier. 

In Esthetics and Criticism, Shishkov, Makarov, Martinov, 
Merzl'yakov, and Ostolopov were the most prominent writers. 

In Bibliography, Sopikov. 

In History, particularly Eugenj, the Metropolitan Ses- 
trenzevich-Bogush, Count Mussin- Pushkin, Bantish-Kamen- 
sky, Malinovsky, Katshenovsky, Timkovsky, Buturlin, 
Richter, S. Glinka, Ewers, Krug, Lehrberg, Adelung, and 
Wichmann. 

In Statistics : Storch, Hermann, Sablovsky. Count Ro- 
manzov earned for himself an imperishable monument in the 
Pantheon of Russian history. 

The Theatre at that time had Semen ov, a poet of singular 
talent, but who found no successor. It is besides greatly 
indebted to Prince Shakhovskoj, the distinguished dramatic 
writer. 

In dramatic poetry we have furthermore Krukovskoj, who 
follows Oserov, Lobanov, Kokoshkin, Khmelnitzkj, Katenin, 
Yisskovatov (distinguished by translation of H'jin), Neva- 
khovich, Ivanov, who wrote dramas in prose. 

Prose writers are Muravyev, Apostol, Jastrelzov, Des 
tuniss. 



376 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



Military prose : Glinka, Pissarev, Golovina, Bronevsky. 

Light prose : Isruailov and Prince Shalikov. 

Lyrical poets of Alexander's time were, Panin, Pankraty, 
Sumarokov, Burinsky, Milonov, Davidov, Pushkin, Zkatrov, 
Prince Gortchakov, Bunina, Shikkmatov, Panayev, and 
others. 

General Davidov, the enthusiastic soldier-poet may be said 
to represent Korner in his country, and Prince Shakhovskoy , 
called the Kussian Kotzebue. 

Griboyadov, a man of eminent talent, unfortunately left us 
only one drama, " Misery caused by a Superabundance of 
Mind." 

MerzPyakov is justly esteemed as aesthetic and critic. 
We now come to the last period of the History of Russian 
Literature or 

4tk Period. — That of Independence and Nationality, 
under the reign of the Czar Nicolai" L and of the present 
high-minded and enlightened Czar Alexander II., who, 
following the footsteps of Peter the Great, of the intel- 
lectual Catharine, and lastly, those of his great uncle and 
father, crowned the work for which they had so carefully 
smoothed the road, by his grand act of the liberation of the 
serfs. Freed from the fetters that had so long held them 
down, they will before long in their turn sound the harp, 
which hitherto had but obeyed the touch of fingers blazing 
forth aristocratic emblems engraved on the costly gems of 
Siberia and the Indies ; and in fact the beginning has already 
been made. 

We have seen Lomonosov, Derzhavin, and Karamsin 
endeavour to take the Russian Pegasus from the plough. 
At last he stands before the nation free of the fetters that so 
long had held him bound, his wings are grown again ; impa- 
tient for the final soar to Parnassus, his eyes flash the divine 
fire of poetry. He feels the approach of the man, according 
to the ancient legend, appointed to mount him. And that 
man did not keep him waiting long. 

Hot and furious the war between Classicism and Roman- 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



377 



tism had been waging, and in its rear followed an entire 
revolution in literary ideas and judgment. The Karamsin 
period of Russian literature was at an end. A new sun had 
risen on its horizon, smoothing down the turbulent waves of 
strife ; that sun was — 

Alexander Ssergeyevick Pushkin, who at last for ever 
brought the feud between the language of the church and 
that of the people to a final and happy conclusion. 

Prose and verse of this truly great poet exhibit the highest 
perfection of form, combined with the most soul-felt popu- 
larism. Deep feeling and a rich, creative fancy breathe in 
every line of his voluminous writings, and their language 
will remain for many years to come an unsurpassable model 
of purity and graceful ease. 

His principal works are : " The Lyrical Epos, Eugene 
Onyagin," a beautiful illustration of Eussian popular life ; 
the novel, "The Captain's Daughter," depicting the rebellion 
of Pugatshev ; and the most perfect tale (as regards style), 
" Dubrovsky." 

When hardly fourteen years old, he published in the 
" European Advertiser" a small poem " On the Death of Kou- 
touzov," in 1815 his so-called Lyceum poems, in 1820 his 
" Russl'yan and L'yudmila," " The Son of the Fatherland," 
and others. " Russl'yan and L'yudmila" is a poem of six 
cantos, and a picture of the heroic age of Russia at Kiev, 
displaying an unwonted poetical spirit, fancy, and taste, 
which promise, under favourable circumstances, to become 
productive of the richest fruits. 

His poem, 66 The Prisoner of the Caucasus," appeared in 
1824. The last production of his muse was " The Well of 
Baktshissaral," a poem of 600 lines, for which a Moscow 
publisher paid him the liberal sum of about 450^ 

Pushkin was born on the 26th May, 1799, at St. Peters- 
burg, was brought up at the Imperial Lyceum, from which 
he was removed in 181Tand placed in the College for the 
Administration of Foreign Affairs. He died in his native 
city on the 10th February, 1837, from a shot- wound received 



378 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR, 



in the breast in a duel with his brother-in-law, D'Authes, 
Baron von Heckeren, the adopted son of the Dutch Ambas- 
sador at St. Petersburg. The duel was occasioned by family 
broils, and by the imputed infidelity of the wife of one of the 
party with the other. 

Alex. Bestuzhev says of him : " While yet a child he sur- 
prised by the manly vigour of his style ; the mines of his 
mother-tongue laid themselves open to the rising youth, and 
poured forth to him the magic store of poetry. His works 
bear the stamp of originality, and leave an impression on the 
memory and feeling of the reader. His thoughts are full of 
acuteness, bold, and fiery ; his language is clear and well- 
regulated — the tones of his verses very music. Availing 
myself of a genuine Kussian simile, i they flow like pearls 
over velvet.' Two of the poems of this young bard, ' Russ- 
l'yan and L'yudmila' and 6 The Prisoner of the Caucasus' 
are especially full of maiden charms. The last composed on 
the green hillock of Ovid's tomb, within sight of the silver- 
hoary Caucasus, glitters with the richest store of fancies and 
with the peculiar beauties of the local splendours of the 
natural scene. Inequality in the plan and the drawing of 
the characters are his principal faults, which he possessed in 
common with all poets who have equalled him in fire and 
been carried away by their imagination." 

Pushkin differs from his predecessors principally by the 
fact, that in the successive progress of his works he not only 
evinces the gradual development of the poet, but also that of 
the man himself, and of his character. His poems of one 
year are ever clearly distinguished from those of the preced- 
ing in intrinsic quality and form, thereby proving, that keen 
observation of real life and his ever fertile idea formed the 
foundation to his writings. 

In his boyish attempts appears no influence of Derzhavin, 
but rather of Shukovsky, Bat'yushkov, Kapnist, and Vassilj 
Pushkin. Only his " Onyagin " reminds one of Derzhavin's 
style. 

However fond of Shukovsky's poems he seems to have 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



379 



been, his chosen pattern was Bat'yushkov. This fact his 
works abundantly illustrate by a certain coyness and again 
merry roguishness ever now and then sparkling through, 
just as one observes the same in Bat'yushkov's poems. 

With child-like veneration he looked up to the veteran 
Derzhavin. In his memoirs he says : — 

" The world smiled on my boyhood ; the first success 
spread its sheltering wing over me ; the venerable Derzhavin 
saw me — when stepping into his grave he gave me his 
blessing." 

With exquisite zest he relates the incident here alluded 
to. On the occasion of a public examination of the students 
at the Lyceum, when he was but in his sixteenth year, he had 
the honour of being called upon to read aloud " Derzhavin's 
Reminiscences of Tsarskoj-Sselo," not two paces distant from 
that poet, who was loud in his praise of the boy's rendering. 
He always looked upon this event as one of the greatest of 
his life. The remembrance of Karamsin, Dmitrijev, and 
Skukovsky, Pushkin clearly cherished to the end of his life. 

We close this chapter with the mention of another publi- 
cation in which he took the principal share, viz., " The 
Insurrection of the Poles and the Fall of Warsaw," in three 
cantos, by Alexander Pushkin, W. Shukovsky, and Khour- 
yakov. One of the cantos is superscribed, " To Russia's 
Defamers." 

Having reluctantly taken leave of the immortal Pushkin, 
we now turn our admiring glance to his younger contempo- 
rary, Mikhail Yurjevich Lermontov, by many called the 
" Russian Byron," of whom Professor Boltz wrote : " Thou- 
sands have deplored, that he was not born, like Byron, a free 
citizen of happy Albion. Beautiful as his lays are, what far 
mightier accords might not the harp of this fiery bard have 
sent through the woods and halls of a free country ! As it 
was — alas ! — he was destined to mourn, like a second Pro- 
metheus, an exile of the inhospitable Caucasus — only to 
meet at the end of his short life the fate of Pushkin." His 
poet's breast also was pierced by the murderous missile of a 



380 



THE LAND OF THE CZAK. 



duelling pistol. Too early his sweet lyre ceased its strains, 
though they will never stop vibrating in the hearts of coming 
generations. 

Of his prose, Yarnhagen van Ense (who has translated 
an episode of his celebrated novel " Bela ") says, that it is 
fully worthy to rank equally with that of the greatest masters 
of all nations. 

Lermontov belonged to a distinguished noble family. 
Born on the 35th October, 1814, he was educated at the 
University of Moscow, whence he entered the Guards at 
St. Petersburg. His lively imagination and fiery spirit led 
him rapidly through the wild oatfield of inconsiderate youth. 
Soon wearied by the pleasures of the gay Russian capital, a 
reaction set in ; he retired from the flaring scenes of noisy 
gaiety and devoted himself entirely to his muse. The high 
circles, to which he belonged, declared him a misanthrope, 
and a poem he wrote on the occasion of Pushkin's death 
drew upon him the displeasure of his superior officers, in 
consequence of which he was sent on active service to the 
Caucasus. The glorious mountain world of that country 
fired his soul and inspired him to songs of most exquisite 
wild melody. No poet had ever painted it with such truth 
and power. He loved the sounds of battle for the mere 
excitement they stirred up in his spirit, and he found more 
satisfaction in the distraction of his gloomy moods, than in 
the desire for glory and distinction. Like Byron, he was 
inclined to brood over his own wrongs, real or imagined ; 
like that poet he made his own individuality the ever- 
conspicuous theme of nearly all his works. Even where he 
describes other persons and circumstances, his own thought 
and feeling appear always prominent. His best poems are, 
" The Lay of the Czar Ivan Vassiljevich," "The Demon," 
" The Gifts of the Terek," " Ismail Bey," and many others. 
His best prose is displayed in the incomparable, widely- 
read novel, " The Hero of our Own Time." A small collec- 
tion of his works appeared already in 1840, at St. Peters- 
burg, and a third edition of the whole of his works in 1852. 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



381 



They exhibit a thorough knowledge of the power of the 
Russian language, and not even Pushkin has handled the 
same with superior grace and force. 

As already mentioned, it was an unhappy duel, which cut 
him down in the very bloom of his years, as he was little 
more than twenty- seven when he fell. Many of his works 
have been translated into the English language, and I hope 
this book may, in its humble way, prove inclucive to a desire 
for closer acquaintance with the Northern bard. 

We have now arrived at a period of extraordinary literary 
fertility. Owing to the genius of a Lomonosov, a Derzhavin, 
a Karamsin, and a Pushkin, the Russian nation possessed 
now a beautiful and rich language, by which to express their 
long pent-up feelings, and to find vent for the hitherto 
fettered energy of literary enterprise. Writers of both sexes 
seem to vie with each other for the palm of poetical, 
romantic, and scientific authorship. To deal with them all 
singly would be impossible for the limits of this work. Its 
object has been, I hope, fulfilled in laying before the public 
of this country a concise and correct account of literary life 
in Russia, and in furnishing a guide and impetus to the 
study of the language, in the first instance, and in the 
reaping of an ample reward for the toil by the lecture of the 
authors with whose lives and works we have endeavoured 
to make the reader somewhat acquainted. 

Of more modern authors, and such as are living and 
writing at the present time, we may in conclusion mention 
the following : — 

Poetry and Belles-Lettres. — Nikitin, a peasant of Voronezh ; 
Krassov, Feth, Count Alexis Tolstoj, the brothers Kireefsky, 
Krestovsky, and others. 

Romance. — Count Leo Tolstoj, Tourgueniev, two novel 
writers of remarkable powers; Pisemsky, Dostogefsky, Gont- 
charov, Uspensky, Vesselovsky, &c. 

Folk-lore has been considerably enriched by the re- 
searches of Afanasiev, Orest Miiller, Gerbel, De Pule, 
&c. Mr. Ralston has just published a work on this sub- 



382 



THE LAND OF THE CZAR. 



ject, which we cannot enough recommend to the perusal of 
the public. 

History. — Professors Kostomarov and Solovief, K. Bes- 
tuzhef-Runim, Gerrye, Popof, A. P} 7 pin, Dubrovin, Kle- 
vanov, Zamyslovsky, Shubinsky, Semefsky, Bartenief, 
Buturlin, Pekarsky, A. Romanovick, Slavatinsky, Simon- 
enko, Prince Vassiltckikov, Prof. Aristov, Harkavi (relations 
of the Arabian writers about the Khazares, Bulgarians, and 
Slavonians, edited, with great care and learning, by a young 
Oriental scholar) ; Gen. Fadeief (Ideas on the Eastern Ques- 
tion (anti-german) ). 

Biography. — E. Koralevsky (Count Bludof and his Time) ; 
Gen. Kitcheief (Personal recollections of French occupation 
of Moscow). 

Clerical. — Father Moroshkin (History of the Jesuits in 
Russia, as far as the year 1820). 

In Political Literature great progress has been made in 
Russia. Recent works are marked by solid thought and 
sound principles. 

Skaldin, " In the Waste and in the Capital." 
Zablotsky-Desiatovsky, " Pruss. Finance" (very good). 
Shukovsky, " History of Political Literature of the 19th 
Century." 

Yurji Samarin, " Border Lands of Russia." 
Danilevsky, u Russia and Europe " (extreme Slavono- 

phile style). 
Nikitinj " Life of the Imprisoned." 
Maximovich, " Siberia and forced Labour." The 4th 
volume of the Military Statistical Collection — Russia, 
accompanied by invaluable Maps. 
Zabielin, u Domestic Life of Court and People." 
Hebrew Library, edited by A. E. Landau. — " On Hebrew 
and Talmudic Law ;" " The Position of the Jewish Race in 
Russia and Europe ;" " Review of Modern Jewish Litera- 
ture ;" and " A Tale of Jewish Life." 

Law.— Journal of Civil and Commercial Law; Prof. 
Anclreefsky, " History of Russian Law ;" Arseniev, JS T etc/iaief, 



RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 



383 



&c. Father Gortchakov, " Landed Properties of the Eussian 
Patriarchs and Metropolitans and of the Holy Synod — from 
988 to 1738. 

Geography and Travels. — Kostenko, Veniukov, Maximov, 
Count Sollogul, Zimmermann, &c. 
Arts and Science : — 

D. Rovinsky, " Eussian Engravers, 1564 to Foundation 

of Academy of Fine Arts;" " Belgrade. - " 
Prczevalshy, " Ussurian Regions." 
Sidorov, " North of Russia." 
Skalkovshy, " Suez Canal." 

Prof. Setchenov, " Physiol. Processes of Growths." 

Livanov, " Dissenters and Criminals." 

Laroche and Father Rasumofsky, assisted by Prince Odo- 

jefsky, " On Glinka and Church Music in Russia." 
M. N. Galkin $ \ Ethnog. Hist. Materials for Central 
P. J. Pashino. ) Asia, Turkestan in 1866. 
A most useful and cleverly compiled work is Bazunotfs 
Book Catalogue. 

Mezhof gives curious lists of articles and books published 
in commemoration of Lomonosov, Karamsin, and Krilov, 
at their recent centennials. 

There appeared on Lomonosov 129, on Karamsin 173, and 
on Krilov 63 different articles. 

The works of Derzhavin, Grigorovich, and Dobroljubov 
have lately been republished. 



INDEX. 



Abadzekhs, 135. 
Abassian Language, 347, 348. 
Abbas Shah, 123. 
Abkhaz, 135, 136. 
Adighe, 135. 
Aeraemoeisets, 160. 
A'inos, 226. 
Alanes, 241. 

Alexander Mikhailovitch, 269-271. 

Alexander Nevsky, 267, 268. 

Alexander II. Nicholayevitch, 317. 

Alexander I. Pavlovitch, 305-309. 

Alexej' I. Mikhailovitch, 284-286. 

Ali-Ullakhi, 97. 

Altai, 10, 11. 

Amazons, 237-241. 

Ambazukes, 10. 

Amusements, 54-58. 

Andrej I. Yurgyevitch, 261. 

Anna Ivanovna, 293-295. 

Animal Kingdom, 19-31. 

Aphkhazo-Karthli, 116. 

Ararat, 16. 

Argyppeans, 237. 

Aristocracy, 45-54. 

Armenians, 102-106. 

Arsacides, 116. 

Askold and Dir, 247. 

Ataman, 82. 

Avarian Languages, 336-339. 
Avarians, 244. 

Aversion to Walking Exercise, 54. 

Bagratides, 116. 
Baikal Lake, 11. 
Barabints, 183. 
Bariatinsky, 130. 

Bashkirs, Meshtsheriaks, and Tep- 

tiars, 169-171. 
Batu, 172. 
Batyuzhkov, 374. 
Bears, 30. 
Belters, 186. 
Besborodko, 372. 



Bjeioukha, 11. 

Black and White Clergy, 324, 325. 

Black Sea Treaty, 233-235. 

Bogdanovitch, 369. 

Boris Godounov, 280. 

Boughians, 243. 

Boukharees, 183. 

Bouriats, 208-210. 

Bovines, 21, 22. 

Buffaloes, 22. 

Bulgarians, 84, 244. 

Burtas, 246. 

Cakhethi, 116. 
Camels, 22, 23. 
Caspian Gates, 9. 
Catharina I., 292. 

Catharina II., Alexeycvna, 298-303. 

Caucasian Gates, 8. 

Caucasians, 113. 

Caucasian Tartars, 187-191. 

Caucasus, 6-10. 

Charity, 36, 37, 50. 

Chemnitzer, 369. 

Church Language, 356, 357. 

Climate, 17. 

Cossacks, 75-82. 

Coures, 89. 

Crime, 41. 

Crimean Tartars, 178-180. 
Cumania, 9. 

Dances, 55. 
Dariela, 8. 
David II., 116, 117. 
Davidov, 376. 
Demidov, 372. 
Derevians, 242. 
Derzhavin, 364-368. 
Dialect of Little-Russia, 71. 
Diet, 52. 

Division of Russia, 371. 

Dmitri I. Alexandrovitch, 268, 269. 

Dmitri Constantinovitch, 270. 

c c 



386 



INDEX. 



Dmitri IV. Donskvi, 271. 
Dmitriyev, 375. 
Dregovitches, 242. 
Dshoutchi Khan, 172. 
Dukhobordsi, 321. 
Dulyabians, 243. 

Education of children, 51. 
Eibofolke, 111. 
Elbruz, 10. 

Elizabeth Petrovna, 295, 296. 
Emigration of Caucasian Tribes, 

139-141. 
English Missions, 141-143. 
Ergik Mountains, 11. 
Esthonians, 158, 159. 
Ethnographic Table, 227-229. 
Eusthades, 115. 

Falassians, 99. 

False Dmitris, 280-282. 

Fatalism, 39-42. 

Feodor III. Alexeyevitch, 286. 

Feodor I. Ivanovitch, 279. 

Festivals, 327. 

Finnish Race, 156-163. 

Freed Serfs, 36. 

Frontiers of Russia, 1. 

Gambling, 57. 

Game, 29. 

Gatioukai's, 135. 

Genuine Kirghiz, 200, 201. 

Geological Formation, 1. 

Geology, 12-14. 

George Vladimirovitch, 260. 

George II. and III. Vsevolodovitch, 

263-265. 
Georgia, 114, 115. 
Georgians, 114-117. 
Germans, 107-110. 
Ghedimin, 86, 87. 
Ghiliaks, 225. 
Gipsies, 98. 
Glinka, 376. 
Gnaditch, 375. 
Golden Horde, 172. 
Goorbi Mountains, 11. 
Goths, 241. 
Gouberlinsk Hills, 11. 
Gourians, 121. 
Great Horde, 197-200. 
Greeks, 111, 112. 
Griboyadov, 376. 
Grouzinians, 117-120. 

Hamzat-Bey, 128. 
Heraclius, 116. 
Hetman, 82. 



High Society, 50, 51. 

Hindoos, 112. 

History of Russia, 237-317. 

Holy Synod, 320. 

Horde of Boukeyev, 195-197. 

Horses, 23-29. 

Hospitality, 49, 50. 

Huns, 9. 

Hyperboreans, 237. 

Igor Olgovitch, 258. 
Igor Rurikovitck, 250, 251. 
Igor's Byzantine Wars, 250. 
Igor's Expedition against the Polovz, 
262. 

Imerethians, 120. 

Improbity, 40. 

Improvidence, 40. 

Ingrians, 159, 160. 

Intemperance, 69-74. 

Introductory Remarks to Russ. Hist., 

230-236. 
Ironians, 91, 92. 
Irtysh, 10. 

Isaslav II. of Smolensk, 267. 
Isaslav Mstislavitch, 258, 259. 
Isaslav III. Davidovitch, 260. 
Isaslav Iaroslavitch, 254. 
Ivan I. Danilovitch, 269. 
Ivan II. of Moscow, 270. 
Ivan III. Vassilyevitch, 274, 275. 
Ivan IV. Vassilyevitch, 276-279. 
Ivan IV. and the Jesuit Possevin, 
328-332. 

Jaropolk I. Svjatoslavitch, 252. 
Jaropolk II. Vladimirovitch, 257. 
Jaropolk III. and Mstislav III. 

Rostislavitch, 261. 
Jaroslav Vladimirovitch, 253. 
Jaroslav III. Tver, 268. 
Jews, 99, 100. 

Kaibals, 185. 
Kalmuks, 211-213. 
Kaltoun, 100. 
Kamassints, 186. 
Kamtchadals, 225. 
Kantemir, 361. 
Kapnist, 369. 
Karae'mes, 100, 101. 
Karagass, 186. 
Karamsin, 372-374. 
Karapalkas, 182. 
Karelians, 160. 
Karpathian Mountains, 11. 
Karthle Race, 113. 
Karthlosides, 116. 
Kassoghs, 246. 



INDEX. 



387 



Katchints, 185. 
Katooma, 11. 
Kazan Tartars, 182. 
Kazbek, 7. 

Kazi-Moullah, 125-128. 

Kliadji- Mahomet, 136. 

Kharikat, 126. 

Kliazars, 244. 

Kheraskov, 369. 

Khivan Expedition, 231-233. 

Khorvats, 243. 

Khosroides, 116. 

Kirghiz-Ka'issaks, 192-194. 

Kistes, 132-134. 

Kizilts, 185. 

Kuazhnin, 369. 

Kokherei, 82. 

Koriako-Tchouktchi, 220. 

Koundrovs, 181. 

Kour River, 114. 

Kourdhs, 96. 

Krilov, 374. 

Kuznedzki Mountains, 11. 

Lamarokov, 370. 
Languages of Russia, 333-354. 
Laps, 160, 161. 
Lavoma, 88. 
Lermontov, 379-381. 
Lesghis or Didos, 124-131. 
Letts, 89. 
Liakhe dialect, 85. 
Lithuanians, 85-89. 
Little Horde, 194, 195. 
Little-Russians, 68-74. 
Little-Russian Poetry, 72. 
Litvins, 88. 
Livonians, 158. 
Lomonosov, 361-363. 
Lutitches, 243. 

Malorossiani, 68-74. 
Manufacturing Districts, 59-62. 
Mazurian Dialect, 85. 
Mennonites, 109. 
Merzl'yakov, 376. 
Method and Kyrill, 355, 356. 
Michael I. Romanov, 2S3, 284. 
Michael II. Yurgyevitch, 261. 
Middle Horde, 197. 
Mines of Russia, 14, 15. 
Mingrelians, 120. 
Mitzdsheghi Languages, 339, 340. 
Moengghe-Taemour, 173. 
Mongol Invasion, 266-273. 
Mongol Race, 205-213. 
Monk Theodore, 328. 
Moozhik, 31. 

Moravian Brethren, 143-149. 



I Mordvins, 168! 

■ Mountains, 5. 

j Mstislar Isaslavitch, 261. 

; Mstislav Vladimirovitch, 257. 

Muller, 370. 
' Muridism, 125-127. 
! Murshid, 125. 

Musical Instruments, 56. 

Music of Little-Russia, 71. 

Natoukhais, 135. 
Nebrothides, 116. 
Nemania (Stephen), 83. 
Nicholas I. Pavlovitch, 309-316. 
Nogai, 173. 
Nogai's, 174-178. 

Obi Tartars, 183. 
Obshtshina, 76. 
Obshtshy Syrte, 11. 
Oleg, 248-250. 

Oleg's Byzantine Campaign, 248, 249. 
Olga, 318. 
Olgherd, 87. 

Origin of the word " Cossack," 75. 
Oserov, 369. 

Ossetiuian Languages, 340-343. 
Ossets, 91-95. 

Ostromirovo Evangelium, 357. 
Ostjaks, 154, 166, 167. 
Ougrians, 166. 

Paul I. Petrovitch, 304, 305. 
Permiaks, 161, 162. 
Persians, 95. 
Petcheneghians, 244. 
Peter I. the Great, 287-291. 
Peter I.'s Alphabet, 361. 
Peter II. Alexevevitch, 293. 
Peter III., 296, 297. 
Petrov, 370. 
Pharnavaz, 115. 

Poem "God " (Derzhavin), 366. 
Poklomaya Gora, 11. 
Polanes, 242. 
Poles, 84, 85. 
Polish Literature, 85. 
Polotchanians, 242. 
Polovz, 245. 

Population of Russia, 31, 228. 

Prince Gortchakov, 376. 

Principal writers of Catharine II. 'a 

period, 370. 
Promychlenniks, 63. 
Pshavs, Toushes, and Khevsourd, 

122, 123. 
Public life, 49. 
Pushkin, A. S., 377-379. 



3SS 



INDEX. 



Kadimitches, 242. 
Raitsh, 374. 
Raskolniks, 63, 321. 
Recent authors, 381-383. 
Religion, 70. 

Restriction of Cossack privileges, 76. 
Ringold, 86. 
Rivers and lakes, 16. 
Rostislav I. Mstislavitch, 260. 
Rurik, Sineus, and Truver, 247, 248. 
Russian Church, 318-332. 
Russian Gods, 243. 
Russian Legends, 360. 
Russian Literature, 355-383. 
Russian Universities, 371. 
Russians of Great-Russia, 34-62. 
Russians of Siberia, 63-67. 
Ruthenes, 72. 

Said Effendi, 126. 
Sagaites, 184. 
Saladin, 96. 
Samoghitians, 88. 
Samovedes, 150-155. 
Sanskrit roots, 351-354. 
Sarmatians, 240. 
Savakotes, 160. 
Sayane Mountains, 11. 
Scandinavian Mountains, 11. 
Scythians, 241. 
Semigalls, 89. 
Serbians, 83, 84. 
Setcha, 77-82. 
Severians, 242. 
Shamanism, 151. 
Shamyl, 127-130. 
Shapzougs, 135. 
Shariat, 125. 
Sheep, 23. 

Shukovsky, 374, 375. 
Siberian honesty, 66. 
Siberian life, 65. 
Siberian Tartars, 183. 
Siberian women, 66. 
Simon Ivanovitcl), 269. 
Size of Russia, 1. 
Slavonians, 242. 
Slavonic Bible, 358. 
Slavonic Languages, 335. 
Slobodian Cossacks, 82. 
Slovenians, 242. 
Sociability, 44, 45. 
Sojotes, 187. 
Soulitchi, 242. 

Sport in the Caucasus, 19-21. 
Ssuani Languages, 348, 349. 
Ssnanes, 121, 122. 
Stannovoi Khrebet, 11. 
Staroverdsi, 321. 



Steppe, 2. 
Superstition, 70. 
Svod-Zakon, 231. 
Svjatopolk (Michael), 255. 
Syjatopolk Iaropolkovitch, 253. 
Syjatoslav Jgorovitch, 251, 252. 
Swedes, 110, 111 

Table manners, 52. 

Talychs, 95. 

Tamerlan (Timour),173. 

Tarikat, 126, 127. 

Tartar Bodyguard, 87. 

Tartar Languages, 350, 351. 

Tartar religious books, 142, 143. 

Tartars, 169-204. 

Tartars of Astrakhan, 181, 182. 

Tartars of Lithuania, 180, 181. 

Tauride Mountains, 5. 

Taurus, 5. 

Tchadyr Dag, 5. 

Tcheremiss, 167, 168. 

Tcherkess, 135-137. 

Tcherkess Language, 344-347. 

Tchetchents, 132-134. 

Tchin, 47, 48. 

Tchingghis Khan, 172-174. 

Tchokood Mountains, 11. 

Tchorakh-Souderan, 97. 

Tchornozjem (black mould), 13. 

Tchouds, 184. 

Tchouia, 11. 

Tchouktchis, 221-224. 

Tchoulyms, 183. 

Tchouvashes, 169. 

Teletskoi Lake, 11. 

Teleutes, 187. 

Teutonic Knights, 87. 

Thamar, 115-117. 

Tiflis, 117. 

Timour, 117. 

Titles, 48. 

Tivertses, 243. 

Tokhtamysh, 173. 

Toukinsk Mountains, 11. 

Toungouse, 214-219. 

Tourals, 183. 

Trade of Siberia, 64, 65. 

Tradesmen, 37, 38. 

Travelling in Russia, 2-5. 

Tredfakovski, 363. 

Troits kossavsk, 64. 

Tumulous Mounds, 63. 

Turkomans, 191, 192. 

Ugaetaei, 172. 
Uglitches, 243. 
Ungrians, 246. 
Ural, 11. 



INDEX. 



Uralo- Altaic peoples, 150-225. 

Vaigatsh, 11. 
Vallachians, 90. 
Varaegh descent, 46. 
Varaeghs (Normans), 247. 
Vassily II. Dmitrovitch, 271, 272. 
Vassily III. Vassilyevitch, 272, 273. 
Vassily IV. Vassilyevitch, 275, 276. 
Vedmas, 70, 71. 
Vegetable Kingdom, 18. 
Venedes, 89. 
Viatitchi, 242. 

Vladimir I. Svjatoslavitch, 252. 
Vladimir II. Vsevolodovitch Mono- 

makh, 255-257. 
Voghuls, 166. 
Von Wisin, 369. 
Votes, 159. 
Votiaks, 165. 
Voyeikov, 375. 
Vronzhenko, 374. 
Vsevolod Jaroslavitch, 254, 255. 
Vsevold Olgovitch, 258. 
Vsevolod III. Yurgyevitch, 262, 263. 

AVhite Bulgarians, 246. 



White Russians, 73, 74. 
Wine, 18, 19. 
Wolves, 30, 31. 
Woman's position, 52, 53. 

Yablonnovoi Khrebet, 11. 

Yadviga, 87. 

Yagella, 87. 

Yakoutes, 201-204. 

Yaroslav II. Vsevoldovitch, 266, 

Yassi, 246. 

Yatvaghians, 89. 

Yazyghs, 241. 

Yenissei River, 11. 

Yermolov, 126, 127. 

Yessids, 97. 

Yougorky Khrebet, 11. 

Youkaghirs, 219, 220. 

Youraks, 153, 154. 

Yourtovs, 181. 

Zales, 89. 

Zaporoghians, 77-82. 
Znakhars, 71. 
Zyrians, 163-165. 



THE END. 



BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WIUTEERIARS. 



7 



London, 193, Piccadilly, W. 
November, 1874. 



Cjjapmmt mttr Jail's 

CATALOCxUE OF BOOKS; 



INCLUDING 



BOOKS FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, 



ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OP 



NEW NOVELS IN THE PBESS. 



KATERFEL.TO: a Story of Exmoor. By G. J. 

Whyte-Melville. 1 vol. With Illustrations. 

HAGARENE. By the Author of "Guy Livingstone." 3 

vols. 

JERPOINT : a Novel. By M. F. Mahony. 3 vols. 

LION IN THE PATH. By the Authors of " Abel Drake's 
Wife" and "Gideon's Rock." 3 vols. 

SHADOWS CAST BEFORE. By Massingberd Home. 
BAITING THE TRAP. By Miss Jean Middlemass. 3 

vols. 

ONE EASTER EVEN. 3 vols. 



CHAPMAN & HALL'S NEW BOOKS. 



ON COMPEOMISE. By John Moeley. Demy 8vo. 

Price 7s. 6d. 

A MEMOIR of the LIFE or WILLIAM J. MULLER, 

ARTIST. By N. Neal Solly, Author of "Memoir of the Life of David Cox." 
Illustrated with numerous rkotographs. One Volume. [In the Press. 



MAJOR WHYTE-MELVILLE. 

KATERFELTO. A Story of Exmoor. By G. J. Whyte- 

Meltille. Illustrated. In 1 vol., demy 8vo. [In December. 



NEW NOVEL BY AUTHOR OF "GUY LIVINGSTONE." 

HAGARENE. In 3 vols. By the Author of " Guy 

Livingstone." [In October. 

PAST DAYS IN INDIA : or, Sporting Reminiscences 

of the Valley of the Soane and the Basin of Singrowlee. By a Late Customs Officer, 
N.W. Provinces, India. Post 8vo. [In October 

THE BAVARIAN MOUNTAINS AND THE SALZ- 

KAMMERGrUT. With an Account of the Habits and Manners of the Hunters, 
Poachers, and Peasantry of these Districts. By Herman Schmid and Karl Stieler. 
With 143 Illustrations. Super -royal 4to. [In October. 

THE AMAZON AND MADEIRA RIVERS. Sketches 

and Descriptions from the Note-book of an Explorer. By Franz Keller, Engineer. 
With 68 Illustrations. Super-royal 4to. [In October. 

MILITARY AND RELIGIOUS LIFE IN THE 

MIDDLE AGES, AND AT THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE. By Paul 
Lacroix. Illustrated with 14 Chromo-lithographic Prints and upwards of 400 
Engravings on Wood. Royal 8vo. [In October. 



4 



CHAPMAN AND HALL'S NEW BOOKS. 



PIUS IX. The Story of His Life to the Eestoration in 

1850. With Glimpses of the National Movement in Italy. By Alfred Owen Legge, 
Author of "The Growth of the Temporal Power of the Papacy." In 2 Yols. r 
demy 8vo. [In October. 

A MEMOIR OF THE LIFE OF DAVID COX, Member 

of the Society of Painters in "Water Colours. With Selections from his Corres- 
pondence, and some Account of his Works. By N. Neal Solly. Illustrated with 
numerous Photographs, from Drawings by the Artist's own hand. A new issue. 
One Volume, royal 8vo, cloth. [In October. 

A HANDBOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL STYLES, 

translated from the German of A. Rosengarten. By W. Collett-Sandars. "With 
upwards of 600 Illustrations. One Volume, large demy 8yo. [In November. 

MELINDA, THE CABOCEER ; OR, SPORT IN 

ASHANTI. A tale of the Gold Coast. By J. H. Skertchl5t, Author of "Da- 
homey as It Is," &c, &c. With Illustrations. One vol., post 8vo. [In October. 

LONE LIFE : A Year in the Wilderness. By Parker 

Gillmore. 2 vols. [In the Press. 

SHADOWS CAST BEFORE. By Massingberd Home. 

3 vols. [In October. 

MANUAL OF VETERINARY SANITARY SCIENCE. 

By George Fleming, R.E., F.R.G.S., &c, Author of "Rabies and Hydrophobia," 
"Horse Shoes and Horse Shoeing," &c. &c. With Illustrations. 2 vols., demy 8vo. 

[In the Press. 

EARL HAKON, THE MIGHTY. By Oehlenschlager. 

Translated from the Danish by Frank C. Lascelles. [In October. 

On October 1st, Part IX., Price One Shilling, of 

THE WAY WE LIVE NOW. By Anthony Trollope. 

With Two Illustrations. To be completed in Twenty Monthly Parts. 



DYCE'S SHAKESPEARE. 

A New Edition op Dyce's Shakespeare, being the Third, with Mr. Dtce's final 
corrections. The latest employment of Mr. Dyce's life was the present revision of 
his second edition. 

THE WORKS OF SHAKESPEARE. Edited by the 

Rev. Alexander Dyce, to be completed in 9 Vols., demy 8vo. 

[Vol. I. mill be ready in November. 



CHAPMAN AND HALL'S NEW BOOKS. 



5 



LANDOR'S WORKS. 

THE LIFE AND WORKS OF WALTER SAVAGE 

LAND0R. "With Portraits and Illustrations. A New Edition, to be completed in 
7 Yols., demy 8vo. The first Volume, containing a new and revised, Edition of 
the Life, by John Forster, will be ready in November. 



COMPLETION OF FORSTER'S LIFE OF DICKENS 

Now ready, demy 8vo, ivith Portrait and Illustrations, price lQs. 

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By John 

Forster. Vol. III. 1852-1870. Twelfth Thousand. 

THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND from 1830 to the 

Resignation of the Gladstone Ministry. By the Rev. W. Nassau Molksworth, M.A. 
A Cheap Edition, in 3 Vols., crown 8vo, carefully Revised, and carried up to March, 
1874. Price 6s. each. 

From the Right Hon. John BrighVs Speech at Birmingham. 

"It,is a great misfortune that the history of our country that is nearest our own 
times young men are least acquainted with. It is not written in histories that were read 
at school, and they are not old enough, as I am old enough, to remember almost every 
political fact since the great Reform Bill of 1832. I wish young men would read some 
history of this period. A neighbour and a friend of mine, a most intelligent and accom- 
plished clergyman — Mr. Molesworth — has published a work, being a political history of 
England from the year 1830 — that is, from the first Reform Bill— until within the last two 
or three years : a book honestly written, in which facts are plainly— and I believe truly — 
stated, and a work which would give great information to all the young men of the country, 
if they could be prevailed upon to read it." 

A New Edition. Fifth Thousand. {1% October. 



THE NEW VOLUME OF THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION OF 
THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. 

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. Vol. II. With Twenty Illus- 

trations by "Phiz." [On October 1st. 

A TALE OF TWO CITIES. By Charles Dickens. 

Forming the New Volume of the "Household Edition." [In October. 

A POPULAE HISTOKY OF ASTRONOMY, By J. 

Rambosson, Laureate of the Institute of France, the French Academy, and the 
Academy of Sciences. Translated by C. B. Pitman. With ten Chromo-Lithographs, 
three Celestial Charts, and sixty-three Woodcuts. [In November. 



6 



CHAPMAN AND HALL'S NEW BOOKS. 



THE LIFE OF THE GEEEKS AND EOMANS. From 

the German of Ernst Gttjhl and W. Kmer. Translated by Dr. Hueffer. One 
Vol. demy 8vo. With 543 Woodcuts. [la November. 



A NEW EDITION OF WEY'S ROME. 

EOME. By Feancis Wey. With an Introduction by 

W. W. Story. Containing 345 beautiful Illustrations. New Edition revised and 
abridged. Forming a magnificent Volume in super-royal Ito. [In October. 

From " The Times." 

"This is the age for beautiful books, but we doubt if it has produced one more truly beautiful 
than the volume on Rome, by Francis Wey, illustrated with 350 fine engravings on wood, 
designed by the most celebrated artists. As good wine needs no bush, so Wey's Rome did 
not require the genial preface of Mr. Story, the famous sculptor, to proclaim" its beauty to 
the world, except on the principle laudari a laudato. M. Wey — for we must inform our 
English readers that M. Wey is a Frenchman — needs no one to speak up for him, for, as 
Mr. Story well says, 'his book is already well known in its original form and language, 
and has commended itself to all who have read and seen it.' The letterpress, we may add, 
is full of varied interest, and written in a lively and sympathetic spirit ; and, as for the 
illustrations, they are, according to Mr. Story, 'so exceedingly attractive and spirited, 
that they alone would make every one who loves Rome desire to possess it. Though they 
only profess to illustrate and, as it were, to frame the text, one might say of them, after the 
manner of auctioneers, when they sell a picture at a low price, ' that the frame is worth twice 
the price.' Mr. Story then proceeds to tell us that, ' in point of number of designs, excel- 
lence of execution, and general character,' no illustrative book on Rome ' can compare 
with this.' .... In this volume are to be found the only sketches which Regnault 
designed on wood, and in the twenty-seven studies engraved here the lover ©f art will not 
fail to recognise and admire his fertility of imagination, his suppleness in dealing with 
different kinds of work, and his skill in composition and arrangingfigures. Alas ! that such 
a career, so full of promise for the arts, should have been cut short by politics at the early 
age of 28." 

AUSTEALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. By Anthony 

TROLLOPE. New and Cheaper Issue. 

PUBLISHERS' NOTE. — As it has been found that the information contained in 
Dir. Trollope's book, on Australia and New Zealand generally, is required in detail by 
those who are interested in the respective Colonies, we have published the work 
divided into four parts, with Maps of each Colony. 

Vol. L containing NEW ZEALAND, is now ready, price 3s. 
„ II. will contain VICTORIA AND TASMANIA. 
„ III. „ NEW SOUTH WALES AND QUEENSLAND. 
„ IV. ,, SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 

TALES FEOM THE FJELD. A Second Series of 

Popular Tales from the Norse of P. CHR. ASBJORNSEN. By Gh W. DA SENT, 
D.C.L. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d. ' 

From the " Times," Dec. VSth, 1S73. 
" These new tales from the Norse are as pleasant and easy reading, both for young and 
old, as the old tales from the same source; and when we have said so much, we do not 
know that we can add anything more in recommendation of the book to our readers, except 
that it is enriched by a beautiful frontispiece by George Howard." 

" Observer," Feb. 8th, 1874. 
" Dr. Dasent may, indeed, be congratulated on the manner in which he has achieved his 
task here, especially when we remember, as he bids us, * that the things which seem easiest 
are often the hardest to do.' " 

" Saturday Bedew," Feb. \4ih, 1874. 
"These are excellent stories, and they have been admirably translated by Dr. Dasent." 



CHAPMAN AND HALL'S NEW BOOKS. 



EICHAED WAGNER AND THE MUSIC OF THE 

FUTURE. By Fraxz Hueffer. Grown Svo, 12s. 

KHIVA AND TURKESTAN. Translated from the 

Russian by Captain Spaldlxg, F. E. Gf. S. Crown Svo, -with Map, 9s. 

THE DOMINION OF AUSTRALIA. By W. H. L. 

Rankex. Large post 8vo, 12 s. 

" Saturday Review;' Bee. 6th, 1873. 
C( ~SLt, Harden presents a concise and summary description of the chief physical causes 
and the industrial development of the different sources of wealth in Australia, and of their 
results in its probable social and political future." 

MAORIA. A Sketch of the Manners and Customs of 

the Aboriginal Inhabitants of New Zealand. By Captain J. 0. Johnstone, Bengal 
Army. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. 

"Athenceum," Feb. Uth, 1874. 
" Maoria, by Capt. Johnstone, is an excellent little book about the aboriginal inhabitants 
of New Zealand, wriiten by a man who knows them well." 

THE PEARL OF THE ANTILLES. By A. Gallexga, 

Author of " Country Life in Piedmont," &c. 8vo, 9s. 

SKETCHES AT HOME AND ABROAD. By J. D. 

Harding. A Selection of Twenty-four Drawings reproduced in Autotype. Royal 
4to, cloth gilt. Price 42s. 

TALES AXD LEGENDS OF THE TYROL. Collected 

and arranged by Madame La Comtesse Yon Guxther. Small 8vo. Price 5s. 

THROUGH FANTEE-LAND TO COOMASSIE. A 

Diary of the Ashantee Expedition. By Frederick Boyle, Author of "Camp 
Notes,'' Special Correspondent to the Daily Telegraph. Post 8vo, 14s. 

PRAIRIE AXD FOREST : a Description of the Game 

of North America with Personal Adventures in their Pursuit. By Parker Gill- 
more ("Ubique "), Author of "Gun, Pod, and Saddle," &c. Demy 8vo, vvith 
numerous Illustrations. Price 12s. 

A CHRISTMAS CAROL ; in Prose, being a Ghost Story 

of Christmas By Charles Dickeks. With coloured Illustrations by John Leeck, 
A reprint of the original edition. Small 8vo, red cloth, gilt edges, 5s. 

THE EARTH. A Descriptive History of the Phenomena 

and Life of the Globe. By Elisee Recles. Edited by the late B. B. Woodward. 
"With 234 Maps and Illustrations, and 24 page Maps printed in Colours. 2 vols, 
large demy 8vo, 26s. 



8 



CHAPMAN AND HALL'S NEW BOOKS. 



MANNERS, CUSTOMS, AND DRESS during the 

MIDDLE AGrES. By Paul Lacroix. Illustrated with 15 Chromo-lithographic 
Prints, and upwards of 400 Engravings on Wood. Royal 8vo, cloth gilt, leather 
back, 31s. 6d. 

" Times," Oct. 2Sth, 1873. 
" This pretty book is a supplement or continuation of one entitled 1 The Arts of the Middle 

Ages/ published by M. Paul Lacroix three years ago We can say no more than that 

it is well written ; . . . . that it is most beautifully illustrated with chrome-lithographs and 
woodcuts, and that it is as pretty a book to lay on a drawing-room table or to put on a 
library shelf as one would wish to see." 

"Builder," Oct. 25th, 1873. 
" It is only at intervals that the lover of books is gratified with such a handsome and 
altogether goodly addition to the objects of his admiration as is presented in the new work 
by M. Lacroix, entitled ' Manners, Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages and during 
the Renaissance Period.' " 

THE OCEAN, ATMOSPHERE, AND LIFE. Being the 

Second Series of a Descriptive History of the Life of the Globe. By Elisee Reclus. 
Translated by the late B. B. Woodward, and Edited by Henry Woodward. 
2 vols, large demy 8vo. Illustrated with 250 Maps or Figures, and 27 Maps printed 
in Colours. Price 26s. 

From the " Saturday Review." 
" Unflagging in industry to the last, the late librarian to the Queen at Windsor left all 
but ready for press, besides other works of great literary value, a translation of the second 
portion of M. Reclus' s comprehensive survey of the Life of the Globe, supplementary to the 
volume upon the * Earth ' which we noticed a year and a half ago. We are glad to see this 
new and not less interesting contribution to the scientific history of our planet, ' The Ocean, 
Atmosphere, and Life,' carried through the press with the same editorial care and complete- 
ness as the former book. The original work has from the first taken its place in its own country 
as a recognised manual in the study of physical geography. In our own educational litera- 
ture we have nothing at all corresponding with it. It may in consequence be expected to 
fill a void in the course of physical teaching. M. Reclus not only shares with his country- 
men in'general the faculty of keen conception and symmetrical arrangement of facts, but 
displays to the full that art of vivid and picturesque exposition which gives to French 
science its crowning and most characteristic charm. The translator has throughout com- 
bined fidelity to the original text with freedom and flexibility of style. The accompanying 
maps, of which there are twenty-seven printed in colours, as well as the woodcuts inserted 
in the text, over two hundred in number, are, without claiming high artistic finish, clear 
and correctly drawn." 

THE LIFE OF OLIVER GOLDSMITH. By John 

Forster. Fifth Edition. With additional Notes, original Illustrations by Maclise, 
Stanfield, Leech, Doyle, several additional designs, and two beautifully engraved 
Portraits from the original Painting by Reynolds and from the Statue by Foley. 
In 2 vols. Price 21s. 

SIR JOHN ELIOT : A Biography. By John Fokster. 

A New and Popular Edition, with Portraits. In 2 vols. Price lis. 

ROUSSEAU. By John Morley. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 

price 26s. 

THE CAUSE OF THE SUPPOSED PROPER MOTION 

OF THE FIXED STARS. With other Geometrical Problems in Astronomy 
hitherto unsolved. Demy 8vo, cloth, 10s. 



CHAPMAN AND HALL'S NEW BOOKS. 



9 



VOLTAIRE. By John Morley. Cheap Edition. Crown 

8vo, 6s. 

"It is impossible to read this volume without being struck by its independence of thought, 
its sincerity and candour of expression, as well as by its ability and literary power. We 
have freely expressed our dissent from the views which it presents of the value and whole- 
someness of the Voltairian philosophy, if that name can fairly be applied to anything so 
essentially unphilosophical ; but at the same time it is well that such views should be fairly 
argued out, and that, whatever inconvenience it may occasion to people who, having once 
made up their minds on a subject, dislike to have them disturbed, accepted conclusions 
should be occasionally tested over again. Mr. Morley has given us a valuable and highly 
suggestive study of the great man of a very critical age." — Saturday Reviexo. 

LIFE AND CONVERSATIONS OF DR. SAMUEL 

JOHNSON (founded chiefly upon Boswell). By Alexander Main. With a Pre- 
face by George Henry Lewes. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d. 

A COMPENDIUM OF ENGLISH HISTORY, from the 

Earliest Times to A.D. 1872. With Copious Quotations on the Leading Events and 
the Constitutional History, together with Appendices. By H. It. Clinton, Instructor 
of Candidates for Public Examinations. Post 8vo, 7 s. 6d. 

From the "Examiner." 

" This is an invaluable book. In two hundred and eighty pages it gives the whole course 
of the history from the earliest ages, judiciously interspersed with quotations from the best 

historians down to our own time A well-arranged index, of 51 pages, adds greatly to 

the usefulness of the book." 

PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING. By George Fleming. 

With 37 Illustrations. Second Edition, enlarged, 8vo, sewed, 2s. 

HOW TO SAVE FUEL. By W. Baring-Gould. With 

Illustrations, post 8vo. Price One Shilling. 

LAYS OF MODERN OXFORD, by Adon ; illustrated 

by M. E. Edward3, F. Lockwood, and the Author. Fcp. 4to, cloth, 6s. 

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATURAL 

ORDERS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Prepared for the Science and Art 
Department, South Kensington. By Professor OLIVER, F.R.S., &c. Oblong 8vo, 
with 109 Plates, price Plain 16s., Coloured 26s. 



WHYTE- MELVILLE'S WORKS. 

Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, fancy boards, 2s. each, or 2s. 6d. in cloth. 

THE WHITE ROSE. 

CERISE. A Tale of the Last Century. 

BROOKES OF BRIDLEMERE. 

"BONES AND I ; " or, The Skeleton at Home. 

" M., OR N." Similia Similibus Curantur. 

CONTRABAND ; OR, A LOSING HAZARD. 

MARKET HARBOROUGH ; or, How Mr. Sawyer went to the Shires. 
SARCHEDON, A LEGEND OF THE GREAT QUEEN. 
SONGS AND VERSES. 

SATANELLA, A STORY OF PUNCHESTOWN. 
THE TRUE CROSS. A Legend of the Church. 



CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS. 
ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION 

OF THE 

WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. 

To be completed in 30 Monthly Yolunies. Demy 8vo, price 10s. each. 

This edition will be printed on a finer paper and in a larger type than has been 
employed in any previous edition. The type has been cast especially for it, and the page 
will be of a size to admit of the introduction of all the original illustrations. These will 
be printed from the steels and bloeks on "which the original artists themselves "were engaged. 

No such attractive issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens, which, 
various as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever-widely 
increasing popularity, have never yet been worthily presented in a really handsome library 
form. 

The want has been extensively felt, and is so often brought under the notice of 
Messrs. Chapman and Hall that the present enterprise is undertaken to satisfy it. 

The collection will comprise all the minor writings it was Mr. Dickens's wish to pre- 
serve, and the series of tales will be issued in the order in which they were written. 

Volumes already puUislied. 
SKETCHES BY "BOZ." With 40 Illustrations by George Cruikshaxk. 
P I C K W I C K. 2 vols . With 42 Illustrations by < < Phiz. ' ' 
OLIVER T VV I ST. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshaxk. 
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by "Phiz. 1 ' 
OLD CURIOSI TY SHOP. 2 vols. With Illustrations by Cattermole, &e. 
BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES. 2 vols. With Illustrations 
by Cattermole, &c. 

MARTINCHUZZLEWIT 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by "Phiz." 

AMERICAN NOTES *** PICTURES FROM ITALY. 1 vol. 

With 8 Illustrations. 



CHAKLES DICKENS'S WORKS. 

HOUSEHOLD EDITION. 

Xo 1 >: P u blisli ing, 

IN WEEKLY PENNY NUMBERS AND SIXPENNY MONTHLY PARTS. 

Each Penny Number will contain Two Illustrations. 
Volumes completed. 

OLIVER TWIST. With 28 Illustrations, cloth, 2s. 6a. ; paper, Is. 6d. 

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. With 59 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. ; paper, 3s. 

DAVID COPPERFIELD. With 60 Illustrations and a Portrait, cloth, 4s. ; paper, 3s. 

BLEAK HOUSE. With 61 Illustrations, cloth, 4s.; paper, 3s. 

LITTLE DORRIT. With 58 Illustrations, cloth, 4s.; paper, 3s. 

PICKWICK PAPERS. With 56 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. ; paper, 3s. 

BARNABY RUDGE. With 46 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. ; paper, 3s. 

Messrs. Chapman & Hail trust that by this Edition they will be enabled to place 
the Works of the most popular British Author of the present day in the hands of all 
English readers. 

The next Volume will be A TALE OF TWO CITIES, with Illustrations by 
F. Barnard. 



CHAELES DICKENS'S WOBKS. 



LIBRARY EDITION, Post 8vo. 

30 veils., with the Original Illustrations, cloth, £12. 



THE "CHARLES DICKENS" EDITION, in Crown 8vo. 
In 19 vols, cloth, with Illustrations, £3 2s. 6d. 





With R Tl Inst rations; 





3 


6 


Martin Ciiuzzlewit 


... With 8 







3 


6 
6 




With 8 







3 




With 8 







3 


6 




With 8 







3 


6 




With 8 







3 


6 




AVith 8 


,, 


... 


3 


6 




With 8 


,, 


.. 



3 
3 


6 
6 
6 





With 8 







3 
3 




... With 8 









With 8 







3 




G 


American Notes and Reprinted Pieces 


With 8 




. 


3 




.. With 8 







3 











3 
















3 


Hard Times and Pictures from Italy 


With 8 




, o 


g 




... With 4 




,. 


3 



6* 




, . , With 4 







3 



THOMAS CARLYLE'S WORKS. 

LIBRARY EDITION COMPLETE. 

Handsomely printed, in 34 vols., demy 8vo, cloth. 

SARTOR RESARTUS. The Life and Opinions of HerTeufelsdrockh. With a Portrait, 7 s. 6d. 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION : A History. 3 vols., each 9*. 

LIFE OF FREDERICK SCHILLER AND EXAMINATION OF HIS WRITINGS. 

With Portrait and Plates, with Supplement, 95. 
CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS. 6 vols., each 9*. 
ON HEROES, HERO WORSHIP, AND THE HEROIC IN HISTORY. 7s. 6d. 
PAST AND PRESENT. With a Portrait, 9s. 

OLIVER CROMWELL'S LETTERS AND SPEECHES. With Portraits, 5 vols., each, 9s. 

LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS. 9s. 

LIFE OF JOHN STERLING. With Portrait, 9s. 

HISTORY OF FREDERICK THE SECOND. 10 vols., each 95. 

TRANSLATIONS FROM THE GERMAN. 3 vols., each 9s. 

GENERAL INDEX TO THE LIBRARY EDITION. 8vo, cloth, 65. 



People's Edition. 

In 37 small crown 8vo volumes at Two Shillings each, bound in cloth; or in sets 
of 37 vols, in 18, cloth gilt, for £3 lis. 

This Cheap Popular Edition, now completed, comprises all the collected writings of 
Mr. Carlyle; a general Index, as well as his Translations from the German in five 
volumes. 



BOOKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

CHAPMAN AND 



HALL. 



ABD-EL-KADER. A Biography. Written from dictation by Colonel 
Chubchill. With, fac-simile letter. Post 8vo, 9s. 

ALL THE YEAR ROUND. Conducted by Charles Dickens. First 
Series. 20 vols. Royal 8vo, cloth, 5s. 6d. each. 

New Series. Vols. 1 to 11. Royal Svo, cloth, 5 s. Od. each. 



■ The Christinas Numbers, in 1 vol. royal Svo. Boards, 2s. 6.1. 

AMAZON AND MADEIRA RIVERS (THE). Sketches and Descrip- 
tion from, the Note-book of an Explorer, by Fbanz Keller. With 68 illustration >• on 
wood. Super Royal 4to, cloth, 21s. 

AUSTRALIAN MEAT — RECIPES FOR COOKING AUSTRALIAN 
MEAT, with Directions for Preparing Sauces suitable for the same. By a Cook. 
12mo, sewed, 9c?. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE AND THE POLICY OF COUNT 
BEUST. A Political Sketch of Men and Events from 1866 to 1870. By A* 
Englishman. Second Edition. Demy 8vo, with Maps. 9s. 



BARTLEY (G. C. T.)— The Seven Ages of a Village Pauper. Crown Svo, 
cloth, 5s. 

BAVARIAN HIGHLANDS (THE) AND THE SALZKAMMERGUT. 
Profusely illustrated by G. Closs, W. Diez, A. von Rambeeg, K. Ravp, J. G-. 
Steffan, F. Voltv, J. Waitee, and others. "With an Account of the Habits and 
Manners of the Hunters, Poachers, and Peasantry of these Districts, by Heeman 
Schmid and Kabl Stieler. Super Royal ito, cloth, 25.?. 

BELL (DR. W. A.)— NEW TRACKS IN NORTH AMERICA. A 
Journal of Travel and Adventure, whilst engaged in the Survey of a Southern Rail- 
road to the Pacific Ocean, during 1867-68. With Twenty Chromos and numerous 
Woodcuts. Second Edition. Demy 8vo, 18s. 



BELL (MAJOR W. MORRISON) — OTHER COUNTRIES. With 
Illustrations and Maps. 2 vols. Svo, cloth, 30s. 



CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 



13 



BENSON'S (W.) PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 

Small 4to, cloth, 15s. 

MANUAL OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. 

Coloured Frontispiece and Illustrations. 12mo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 

BLYTH (COLONEL)— THE WHIST-PLAYER. With Coloured Plates 
of "Hands." Third Edition. Imp. 16mo, cloth, 5s. 

BOYLE (FREDERICK. ) — THROUGH FANTEE-LAND TO COO- 
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